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TOPICAL ISSUE
Allegation Letter № AL RUS 13/2025: United Nations Special Rapporteurs Have Raised Questions About «Seizure» of the Legal Profession in Russia
RAGULIN Andrey Viktorovich
Doctor of Law, Associate Professor, Advocate of the Moscow Chamber of Advocates, Head of the Centre for the Study of the Organization and Operation of the Advocacy of the Eurasian Scientific Research Institute of Problems of Law, Professor of the Department of Law of the Eastern Economic and Legal Humanitarian Academy, Editor-in-Chief of the «Eurasian Advocacy» Journal
450006, Ufa, Lenina Str., 102, office 24, Russian Federation
Abstract: The article presents a comprehensive analysis of the «Allegation Letter» № AL RUS 13/2025 sent by UN Special Rapporteurs to the Government of the Russian Federation. The author examines the nature of this UN document and conducts a comparative analysis of its provisions with independent scientific and practical reports on the institutional crisis within the Russian legal profession. The paper substantiates that the concepts of the state «seizure» of the legal profession (state capture), repressive corporate rule-making, and disciplinary arbitrariness are legitimized at the international level. Special attention is given to the destructive nature of the proposed «lawyer`s monopoly» bill and the systemic criminal prosecution of defense lawyers, including the high-profile cases. The key questions posed by the UN to the Russian authorities are considered, and the potential vectors of official state responses are forecasted. It is concluded that the examined UN document has paramount historical significance for documenting gross violations of international law and for the ongoing struggle to preserve an independent legal profession in Russia.
Keywords: advocacy, legal profession, UN Special Procedures, Allegation Letter, state capture of the legal profession, «lawyer`s monopoly», independence of the legal profession, criminal prosecution of lawyers
References
1.Communications special procedures [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-environment/communications-special-procedures.
2.Human rights council special procedures [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://co-guide.info/mechanism/human-rights-council-special-procedures.
3.What are communications [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures-human-rights-council/what-are-communications.
4.What do the special procedures do communications [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://academy.ishr.ch/learn/special-procedures/what-do-the-special-procedures-do-communications.
5.Submission information allegations and individual complaints [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-housing/submission-information-allegations-and-individual-complaints.
6.Obrashhenie v zashhitu rossijskix advokatov, podvergayushhixsya presledovaniyu // Evrazijskaya advokatura. 2023. № 2 (61). [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/obraschenie-v-zaschitu-rossiyskih-advokatov-podvergayuschihsya-presledovaniyu.
7.Special rapporteur on torture and other cruel inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cglj.org/human-rights-oversight/united-nations/human-rights-council/special-procedures/special-rapporteur-on-torture-and-other-cruel-inhuman-or-degrading-treatment-or-punishment/.
8.A19 Guidelines on Communications to UNSPs P4 spreads [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.article19.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/A19-Guidelines-on-Communications-to-UNSPs-P4-spreads.pdf.
9.DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile [E`lektronny`j
resurs]. URL: https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=30470.
10.Russia sentences three Navalny* lawyers [E`lektron-ny`j resurs]. URL: https://lawsociety.ie/gazette/top-stories/2025/january/russia-sentences-three-navalny-lawyers/.
11.Russia sentences Alexey Navalny* lawyers to years behind bars [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.cbsnews.com/news/russia-sentences-alexey-navalny-lawyers-to-years-behind-bars/.
12.Submission of information to the special procedures [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.srpoverty.org/submission-of-information-to-the-special-procedures/.
13.Communications submitting information special rapporteur [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-migrants/communicationssubmitting-information-special-rapporteur.
14.Zaxvat advokatury` i presledovanie advokatov v Rossijskoj Federacii: kak vernut` nezavisimost` advokatov i pravo grazhdan na zashhitu [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/zahvat-advokatury-i-presledovanie-advokatov-v-rossiyskoy-federatsii-kak-vernut-nezavisimost-advokatov-i-pravo-grazhdan-na-zaschitu.
15.Story 1159221 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/01/1159221.
16.Russias repression policy dismantle civil society exposes fear [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.ohchr.org/ru/press-releases/2025/12/russias-repression-policy-dismantle-civil-society-exposes-fear.
17.Record 4072734 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/4072734.

 

20.Obrashhenie o provedenii predupreditel`noj akcii vseobshhego vremennogo povsemestnogo prekrashheniya uchastiya advokatov v processual`ny`x dejstviyax vo vsex vidax sudoproizvodstva // Evrazijskaya advokatura. 2023. № 5 (64). [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/obraschenie-o-provedenii-predupreditelnoy-aktsii-vseobschego-vremennogo-povsemestnogo-prekrascheniya-uchastiya-advokatov-v.
21.Story 1166199 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/10/1166199.
22.Russian federal bar association issues statement [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.defendersbelarus.org/tpost/7fd6j75051-russian-federal-bar-association-issues-s.
23.Russia statement spokesperson politically motivated charges [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/russia-statement-spokesperson-politically-motivated-charges-alexei-navalny %E2 %80 %99s-defence-lawyers_en.

 

26.Zayavlenie special`nogo dokladchika OON po voprosu o polozhenii v oblasti prav cheloveka v Rossijskoj Federacii i special`nogo... [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/zayavlenie-spetsialnogo-dokladchika-oon-po-voprosu-o-polozhenii-v-oblasti-prav-cheloveka-v-rossiyskoy-federatsii-i-spetsialnogo.
27.Obrashhenie pravleniya mezhregional`noj obshhestvennoj organizacii advokatov i yuristov «Iniciativa 2018» v organy` Organizacii Ob``edinenny`x Nacij… [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/obraschenie-pravleniya-mezhregionalnoy-obschestvennoy-organizatsii-advokatov-i-yuristov-initsiativa-2018-v-organy-organizatsii.

HISTORICAL EXPERIENCE
Principles of Canon Law
KAREV Dmitry Alexandrovich
Candidate of Law, Associate Professor of Department of Legal Theory and Public Law of Samara State University of Economics
443090, Samara, Sovetskaya Armiya Str., 141, Russian Federation
Abstract: This article examines the fundamental foundations of church law, its sources, and the methodological approaches used to study them. Special attention is given to the debates between representatives of different scientific schools, including historical, archaic, and dogmatic approaches. The article analyzes the views of I.S. Berdnikov, A.S. Pavlov, P. Lashkarev, and other researchers on the nature of canon law, its origins, and its application. The key contradictions between different interpretations of canon law principles are identified, and ways to overcome them through the synthesis of historical and dogmatic approaches are proposed.
Keywords: canon law, church law, principles of law, sources of church law
References
1.Almazov A.I. Kratkij kurs cerkovnogo prava. Odessa: Lit. Frejdenberga i K, cenz. 1889.
2.Al`bov M.I., svyashhennik. Kratkij kurs lekcij po cerkovnomu pravu. SPb.: Tipografiya V.S. Balasheva, 1882.
3.Askochenskij V.I. Istoriya Kievskoj duxovnoj akademii, po preobrazovanii ee v 1819 godu. SPb.: Tipografiya E`. Vejmara, 1863.
4.Akchurina N.V. Istoricheskoe napravlenie v russkom pravovedenii XIX veka: avtoref. dis. … dokt. yurid. nauk. Saratov, 2000.
5.Berdnikov I.S. Neskol`ko slov po povodu recenzij na issledovanie professora A.S. Pavlova o 50-j glave Kormchej knigi. Moskva 1887. Kazan`: Tipografiya Imperatorskogo Universiteta, 1891.
6.Berdnikov I.S. Arxaicheskoe napravlenie v cerkovnom prave (Kriticheskij razbor sochinenij prof. Kiev. akad. P. Lashkareva: Pravo cerkovnoe v ego osnovax, vidax i istochnikax. Kiev, 1886). Kazan`: Tipografiya Imperatorskogo Universiteta, 1896.

HISTORICAL EXPERIENCE
Property Separation of Legal Entities as a Prerequisite for the Emergence of Property Immunity
DYUZHENKOV Nikolai Andreevich
Postgraduate Student of the Department of Civil Law and Procedure and Private International Law of Patrice Lumumba Russian University of Friendship of Peoples
117198, Moscow, Miklukho-Maklaya Street, 6, Russian Federation
Abstract: Based on the analysis of the history of the emergence and development of the property immunities of legal entities and individuals, the author concludes that the reason for the later legalization of the immunities of legal entities is the lack of understanding in the early stages of legal development that legal entities have separate property. A retrospective analysis of domestic doctrine and legal acts demonstrates that in pre-revolutionary law, the idea of the property separation of legal entities was not properly formalized, and in Soviet law, legal entities, despite having the right to possess separate property, were not actually the owners of this property, which made it impossible to apply property immunities. The emergence of the immunities of legal entities in modern Russian law is due to the legal provision that allows these entities to own separate property. Based on this, the author concludes that the property separation of legal entities is a key prerequisite and necessary condition for the emergence of their property immunities.
Keywords: legal entities, bankruptcy, insolvency, immunity, property immunity, property separation
References
1.Bratus` S.N. Pravo gosudarstvennoj sobstvennosti i imushhestvennaya samostoyatel`nost` gosudarstvennogo predpriyatiya. M., 1989. S. 38–42.
2.Venediktov A.V. Gosudarstvennaya socialisticheskaya sobstvennost` / otv. red. V.K. Rajxer. M.; L.: Izd-vo AN SSSR, 1948. S. 329.
3.Dyuzhenkov N.A. K voprosu o koncepciyax vozniknoveniya instituta imushhestvenny`x immunitetov // Evrazijskij yuridicheskij zhurnal. 2025. № 4 (203). S. 219–221.
4.Ioffe O.S. Sovetskoe grazhdanskoe pravo. L.: Izd-vo Leningr. un-ta, 1958. S. 106.
5.Kurbatov A.Ya. Predprinimatel`skoe pravo: problemy` teorii i pravoprimeneniya: monografiya. M.: Yusticinform, 2022. S. 244.
6.Maly`shev K. Kurs grazhdanskogo prava, sostavlenny`j po lekciyam K. Maly`sheva. S.-Peterburg, 1879/80. S. 302.
7.Mejer D.I. Russkoe grazhdanskoe pravo: v 2 ch. M.: Statut, 1997. Ch. 1. S. 846.
8.Mixajlov M. Istoriya obrazovaniya i razvitiya sistemy` russkogo grazhdanskogo sudoproizvodstva do Ulozheniya 1649 g.: Sochinenie, napisannoe dlya polucheniya stepeni magistra grazhdanskogo prava. S.-Peterburg, 1848. S. 134.
9.Ostanina E.A. Imushhestvennaya obosoblennost` fizicheskogo licza i posledstviya, s neyu svyazanny`e // Vestnik e`konomicheskogo pravosudiya Rossijskoj Federacii. 2024. № 12. S. 48–74.
10.Raxmilovich V.A. O dostoinstvax i nedostatkax Grazhdanskogo kodeksa RF // Gosudarstvo i pravo. 1996. № 4. S. 78–80.
11.Rossijskoe grazhdanskoe pravo: Uchebnik: V 2 t. T. I: Obshhaya chast`. Veshhnoe pravo. Nasledstvennoe pravo. Intellektual`ny`e prava. Lichny`e neimushhestvenny`e prava / Otv. red. E.A. Suxanov. M., 2011. S. 958
12.Sklovskij K.I. Sobstvennost` v grazhdanskom prave: Ucheb.-prakt. posobie. 2-e izd. M.: Delo, 1999. S. 182.
13.Slabospiczkij A.S., Solov`eva D.A. Ispolnitel`skij immunitet pri bankrotstve dolzhnika // Vestnik Moskovskogo universiteta imeni S.Yu. Vitte. Seriya 2. Yuridicheskie nauki. 2023. № 3 (39). S. 31–38.
14.Smolenskij I.N. O realizacii nekotory`x principov civilisticheskogo processa v procedure bankrotstva fizicheskix licz // Vestnik grazhdanskogo processa. 2024. T. 14. № 4. S. 304–314.
15.Sovetskoe grazhdanskoe pravo: V 2 t. / otv. red. V.A. Ryasencev. M.: Yuridicheskaya literatura, 1965. T. 1. S. 518.
16.Sudebny`e ustavy` 20 noyabrya 1864 goda, s izlozheniem rassuzhdenij, na koix oni osnovany`. SPb.: Gos. kancelyariya, 1866. Ch. 1. S. 763.
17.Suxanov E.A. Kommentarii k stat`yam 48, 50 Grazhdanskogo kodeksa RF // Vestnik grazhdanskogo prava. 2022. № 1. S. 136–166.
18.Tarxov V.A. Grazhdanskoe pravo. Obshhaya chast`: Kurs lekcij. Cheboksary`: Chuv. kn. izd-vo, 1997. S. 330.
19.Filippova S.Yu., Shitkina I.S. Imushhestvennaya obosoblennost` kak priznak yuridicheskogo licza: teoriya i praktika (po straniczam klassiki i sudebny`x aktov) // Zakon. 2024. № 8. S. 146–164.
20.Shershenevich G.F. Konkursnoe pravo. Kazan`, 1898. S. 498.
21.Shershenevich G.F. Uchebnik russkogo grazhdanskogo prava. M., 1912. S. 793.
22.Postanovlenie Konstitucionnogo Suda RF ot 12.07.2007 № 10-P «Po delu o proverke konstitucionnosti polozheniya abzacza tret`ego chasti pervoj stat`i 446 Grazhdanskogo processual`nogo kodeksa Rossijskoj Federacii v svyazi s zhalobami grazhdan V.V. Bezmenova i N.V. Kalabuna» // Sobranie zakonodatel`stva RF. 2007. № 30. St. 3988.
23.Grazhdanskij processual`ny`j kodeks RSFSR ot 10 iyulya 1923 goda (utv. postanovleniem VCIK) (vveden v dejstvie s 1 sentyabrya 1923 goda na vsej territorii RSFSR) (utratil silu) // Sobranie uzakonenij i rasporyazhenij Rabochego i Krest`yanskogo pravitel`stva. 1923. Otd. 1. № 46–47. St. 478.
24.Grazhdanskij processual`ny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ot 14.11.2002 № 138-FZ (red. ot 15.12.2025, s izm. ot 22.12.2025) (s izm. i dop., vstup. v silu s 01.01.2026) // Sobranie zakonodatel`stva RF. 2002. № 46. St. 4532.
25.Federal`ny`j zakon ot 26.10.2002 № 127-FZ (red. ot 29.12.2025) «O nesostoyatel`nosti (bankrotstve)» // Sobranie zakonodatel`stva RF. 2002. № 43. St. 4190.
26.Postanovlenie VCIK ot 11.11.1922 (s izm. ot 02.02.1923) «O vvedenii v dejstvie Grazhdanskogo kodeksa R.S.F.S.R.» (vmeste s «Grazhdanskim kodeksom R.S.F.S.R.») // Izvestiya VCIK. 1922. № 256.
27.Zakon RSFSR ot 11.06.1964 «Ob utverzhdenii Grazhdanskogo kodeksa RSFSR» (vmeste s «Grazhdanskim kodeksom RSFSR») // Vedomosti VS RSFSR. 1964. № 24. St. 407.
28.Grazhdanskij processual`ny`j kodeks RSFSR (utv. VS RSFSR 11.06.1964) // Vedomosti VS RSFSR. 1964. № 24. St. 407.
29.Obzor sudebnoj praktiki Verxovnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii № 3. 2018 (utv. Prezidiumom Verxovnogo Suda RF 14.11.2018) (red. ot 26.12.2018) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: SPS «Konsul`tant-Plyus» (data obrashheniya: 10.02.2026).
30.Osnovy` grazhdanskogo zakonodatel`stva Soyuza SSR i respublik (utv. VS SSSR 31.05.1991 № 2211-1) (red. ot 26.11.2001) // Vedomosti SND i VS SSSR. 1991. № 26. St. 733.

PROBLEMS OF ORGANIZATION AND ADVOCACY PROFESSION FUNCTIONING
Specialization of Judicial Representation as an Alternative to the «Lawyer’s Monopoly»: Self-Regulation by Branches of Law in the Context of Implementing the Constitutional Right to Qualified Legal Assistance
KOZLOVA Valeria Mikhailovna
Postgraduate Student of the V.M. Lebedev Russian State University of Justice, Advocate of the Moscow Bar Association «Kuzmin and Partners»
107023, Moscow, 4 Barabanny Lane, 2nd Floor, Block X, Room 3, Russian Federation
Abstract: The purpose of the study is to examine the model of sectoral specialization of judicial representatives based on self-regulatory organizations (SROs) as a constructive alternative to the project of professionalization of judicial representation through the introduction of a «lawyer’s monopoly». The methods of systematic analysis, comparative legal method, formal legal method, sociological method, and document analysis method are employed. The article analyzes the outcomes of the international round table «Prospects for the Introduction of Specialization in the Field of Advocacy of the CIS Member States» (December 9, 2025), the position of M.Yu. Barshchevsky on the register of judicial representatives, the results of the empirical study by A.P. Kazun, E.A. Khodzhayeva and A.A. Yakovlev on actual specialization within the bar community, foreign experience of lawyer specialization (Armenia, Uzbekistan, Germany, France), as well as the state of the legal services market according to the VETA research (2024). The necessity of transitioning from the concept of a «universal» advocate to a model of specialized judicial representation is substantiated. A concept of the federal law «On Qualified Legal Assistance» is proposed, providing for the creation of sectoral SROs of judicial representatives, the extension of consumer protection legislation to their activities, and the delineation of functions of the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation and the Judicial Department of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation in controlling the legal services market. The significance of the work lies in justifying a mechanism that ensures the balance of private and public interests in the field of judicial representation through the development of domestic self-regulation experience rather than borrowing foreign models.
Keywords: qualified legal assistance, judicial representation, lawyer’s monopoly, self-regulatory organization, specialization, consumer protection, advocacy
References
1.Bushmanov I.B. Specializaciya v advokature: nasushhnoe trebovanie sovremennosti // Advokatskaya gazeta. 2024. 18 sentyabrya [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.advgazeta.ru/mneniya/spetsializatsiya-v-advokature-nasushchnoe-trebovanie-sovremennosti/.
2.Postanovlenie Konstitucionnogo Suda RF ot 28.01.1997 № 2-P «Po delu o proverke konstitucionnosti chasti chetvertoj stat`i 47 Ugolovno-processual`nogo kodeksa RSFSR v svyazi s zhalobami grazhdan B.V. Antipova, R.L. Gitisa i S.V. Abramova» // Sobranie zakonodatel`stva RF. 1997. № 7. St. 871.
3.Ministerstvo yusticii RF. Proekt federal`nogo zakona «O vnesenii izmenenij v otdel`ny`e zakonodatel`ny`e akty` Rossijskoj Federacii» (professionalizaciya sudebnogo predstavitel`stva). 2025. 11 iyulya [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://regulation.gov.ru/projects/163630/.
4.Federal`naya palata advokatov RF. Mezhdunarod-ny`j krugly`j stol «Perspektivy` vvedeniya specializacii v sfere advokatskoj deyatel`nosti gosudarstv – uchastnikov SNG». 2025. 9 dekabrya [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://fparf.ru/news/fpa/po-kakomu-puti-nam-idti/.
5.Kazun A.P., Xodzhaeva E.A., Yakovlev A.A. Advokatskoe soobshhestvo Rossii: analiticheskij obzor na osnove e`mpiricheskix danny`x. M.; SPb.: IPP pri EU v SPb; NIU VShE`, 2015.
6.VETA. Issledovanie ry`nka yuridicheskix uslug: Moskva i Moskovskaya oblast`. M.: VETA, 2024.
7.Barshhevskij M.Yu. Interv`yu RBK: «Al`ternativoj advokatskoj monopolii mog by` stat` e`kzamen na pravo predstavlyat` poziciyu v sude» // RBK. 2026. 28 fevralya [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.rbc.ru/politics/28/02/2026/69a158b59a79473aba6d3892.
8.Sinel`shhikov Yu.P. Advokaty` i yuristy` possorilis` v gostyax u kommunistov: ostraya diskussiya ob advokatskoj monopolii v parlamente // Kommersant``. 2025. 9 oktyabrya [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/8101430.
9.Ryaxovskaya A.N., Kovan S.E., Alferov V.N. Problemy` samoregulirovaniya v Rossii // E`ffektivnoe antikrizisnoe upravlenie. 2013. № 2. S. 62–71.
10.Postanovlenie Konstitucionnogo Suda RF ot 25.10.2001 № 14-P «Po delu o proverke konstitucionnosti polozhenij statej 293 i 246 Grazhdanskogo processual`nogo kodeksa RSFSR v svyazi s zhalobami grazhdan» // Sobranie zakonodatel`stva RF. 2001. № 45. St. 4302.
11.Morshhakova T.G. Konstitucionny`e osnovy` organizacii i reformirovaniya sistemy` kvalificirovannoj yuridicheskoj pomoshhi v Rossijskoj Federacii // Sravnitel`noe konstitucionnoe obozrenie. 2015. № 5. S. 58–72 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.iuaj.net/node/1923.

ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF ADVOCACY PRACTICE
Some Features of Reading out the Testimony of the Victim and the Prosecution Witness
IBRAGIMOV Artur Gasanguseinovich
Candidate of Law, Associate Professor of the Department of Criminal Procedure and Forensic Science of Kazan Federal University
420008, Kazan, Kremlevskaya str., 18-1, Russian Federation
Abstract: The purpose of the article is to analyze the specifics of reading out the testimony of the victim and witness on the part of the prosecution during the trial. It analyzes the relationship between testimony given at the stage of preliminary investigation and testimony presented in court, as well as the procedural grounds for their disclosure under Article 281 of the Criminal Procedure Code of the Russian Federation. Particular attention is paid to the problem of accusatory bias resulting from the conditions in which testimony is obtained during the pre-trial stage and from the practice of its subsequent use by the public prosecutor. The author concludes that the defense must exercise careful procedural control over the grounds and procedure for reading out such testimony during the trial.
Keywords: reading out testimony, interrogation, judicial proceedings, public prosecutor, defense, victim, prosecution witness
References
1.Ugolovno-processual`ny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ot 18.12.2001 № 174-FZ (red. 20.02.2026).
2.Klyukova M.E. Sub``ekty` ugolovnogo presledovaniya // Ucheny`e zapiski Kazanskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Seriya: Gumanitarny`e nauki. 2007. T. 149. № 6. S. 273–279.

ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF ADVOCACY PRACTICE
Problems of Practice of Technical Maintenance Contracts
MALAFEEV Mikhail Alexandrovich
Postgraduate Student of the Department of Civil and Business Law of Law Faculty of Ulyanovsk State University
432970, Ulyanovsk, Goncharova Str., 40/9, Russian Federation
Abstract: The article discusses the specifics of the software technical maintenance agreement. This type of contract is relatively new, and the practice of such contracts is constantly evolving, since the terms of such agreements are directly related to current trends in information technology development. Each new approach in the work of technical support services is reflected in the general characteristics of such an agreement and its terms. The article examines the differences between technical support services and software maintenance, the main and essential terms of such agreements, the problems of classifying such contracts, the problems of the legal regime of system updates as the results of support specialists’ work. The article investigates the role of this type of agreement in the general system of relations for the provision of software. A comparative analysis of the practices of individual organizations is applied, the practice of such contracts is analyzed, and the main problems of such contracts are discussed. According to the results of the work, it is proposed to use the term «software maintenance» as the most universal for this type of service. Within the framework of current practice, it is proposed to treat such agreements as a service agreement, in the essential terms of which it is necessary to provide a complete and exhaustive list of services provided, precise criteria for evaluating the quality of services, the area of responsibility of the contractor, as well as the procedure for updating the supported system and the limit of possible changes.
Keywords: technical support agreement, technical support, software maintenance, software provision, civil law relations
References
1.1S:ITS – ediny`j dogovor dlya polucheniya servisov pol`zovatelyami «1S:Predpriyatie» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://its.1c.ru/db/aboutitsnew.
2.Vasil`eva N.V. Dogovor texnicheskoj podderzhki // Molody`e issledovateli i nauka: Aktual`ny`e voprosy`, dostizheniya i innovacii. Sbornik statej po materialam IV Vserossijskoj studencheskoj nauchno-prakticheskoj konferencii. Joshkar-Ola, 2025. S. 15-26.
3.Kanashevskij V.A. Sudebny`e spory` o prekrashhenii texnicheskoj podderzhki programmnogo obespecheniya inostranny`mi pravoobladatelyami // Zhurnal rossijskogo prava. 2024. T. 28. № 12. S. 76-87.
4.Lovacheva N.N. Ponyatie soprovozhdeniya programm dlya E`VM i baz danny`x: obzor pravovy`x i prakticheskix aspektov // Peterburgskij pravovoj portal. 2021 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://ppt.ru/art/pravo/soprovozhdenie-programm-dlya-evm-i-baz-dannykh.Nacional`ny`j standart GOST R 15.000–2016 «Sistema razrabotki i postanovki produkcii na proizvodstvo. Osnovny`e polozheniya» (utv. prikazom Federal`nogo agentstva po texnicheskomu regulirovaniyu i metrologii ot 31.10.2016 № 1540-st).
5.Nacional`ny`j standart GOST R 71998–2025 «Informacionny`e texnologii. Trebovaniya i ocenka kachestva sistem i programmnogo obespecheniya. Opredelenie kachestva IT-uslug» (utv. prikazom Federal`nogo agentstva po texnicheskomu regulirovaniyu i metrologii ot 25.03.2025 № 213-st).
6.Nacional`ny`j standart GOST R ISO/ME`K 20000-1–2021 «Informacionny`e texnologii. Menedzhment servisov. Chast` 1. Trebovaniya k sisteme menedzhmenta servisov» (utv. prikazom Federal`nogo agentstva po texnicheskomu regulirovaniyu i metrologii ot 07.12.2021 № 1718-st).
7.Nacional`ny`j standart GOST R ISO/ME`K 12207–2010 «Informacionnaya texnologiya. Sistemnaya i programmnaya inzheneriya. Processy` zhiznennogo cikla programmny`x sredstv» (utv. prikazom Federal`nogo agentstva po texnicheskomu regulirovaniyu i metrologii ot 30.11.2010 № 631-st).
8.Oficial`naya podderzhka 1C [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://1c.ru/rus/support/support.htm.
9.Oformlenie dogovora 1S:ITS [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://its.1c.ru/db/aboutitsnew#content:21:hdoc:issogl1_many.
10.Pis`mo Mincifry` Rossii ot 07.09.2021 № P11-2-05-200-38749 «O rassmotrenii obrashhenij sub``ektov predprinimatel`skoj deyatel`nosti i zainteresovanny`x licz v sfere informacionny`x texnologij» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_395075/.
11.Pis`mo Mincifry` Rossii ot 27.01.2022 № P11-2-05-200-3571 «O rassmotrenii obrashhenij sub``ektov predprinimatel`skoj deyatel`nosti i zainteresovanny`x licz v sfere informacionny`x texnologij» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_408074/.
12.Postanovlenie Devyatogo arbitrazhnogo apellyacionnogo suda ot 20.02.2025 po delu № A40-92891/2024 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://sudact.ru/arbitral/doc/kUwKXgOdASr1/.
13.Postanovlenie Semnadczatogo arbitrazhnogo apellyacionnogo suda ot 23.01.2020 po delu № A60-44348/2018 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://sudact.ru/arbitral/doc/CiJ23vPln8YC/.
14.Reshenie Arbitrazhnogo suda goroda Moskvy` ot 25.10.2023 po delu № A40-112331/2023 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://sudact.ru/arbitral/doc/q4Zrn9BQrklw/.
15.Reshenie Arbitrazhnogo suda Sverdlovskoj oblasti ot 25.09.2020 po delu № A60-65159/2019 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://sudact.ru/arbitral/doc/ldU2Z797YS6d/.
16.Tipovoj dogovor na texnicheskuyu podderzhku i texnicheskoe soprovozhdenie OOO «Kripto-pro» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cryptopro.ru/sites/default/files/products/ca/doc/dogovor-uc1.doc.
17.Tipovoj dogovor uslug pryamoj texnicheskoj podderzhki «SintezM» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.fintech.ru/tehpodderzhka/sintez-m-i.

ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF ADVOCACY PRACTICE
The Passenger as a Subject of Violations of Rules Ensuring Safe Transportation Operations
SHVEDCHENKO Vladislav Anatolyevich
Postgraduate Student of the Criminal Law Department of the Russian University of Transport
127055, GSP-4, Moscow, Obraztsova Str., 9, Build. 9, Russian Federation
Abstract: The article focuses on the passenger as an independent subject of a transportation crime and clarifies the criteria for their criminal liability. Particular attention is paid to the problems of establishing a causal link between the passenger’s behavior and the resulting consequences. It is substantiated that a passenger bears independent obligations, the violation of which, if causally linked to serious harm to health or death, constitutes grounds for criminal liability under Article 268 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. The main issues in legal classification are identified: distinguishing between Articles 264 and 268 of the Criminal Code, assessing the passenger’s interference with the operation of the vehicle, and establishing a causal link when there are multiple offenders.
Keywords: passenger, transportation crimes, road safety, perpetrator, traffic regulations, criminal liability
References
1.Ugolovny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ot 13.06.1996 № 63-FZ (red. ot 29.12.2025) // Sobranie zakonodatel`stva RF. 1996. № 25. St. 2954.
2.Postanovlenie Soveta Ministrov – Pravitel`stva RF ot 23.10.1993 № 1090 (red. ot 16.07.2025) «O Pravilax dorozhnogo dvizheniya».
3.Kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ob administrativny`x pravonarusheniyax ot 30.12.2001 № 195-FZ (red. ot 29.12.2025) (s izm. i dop.) // Sobranie zakonodatel`stva RF. 2002. № 1 (ch. 1). St. 1.
4.Postanovlenie Plenuma Verxovnogo Suda RF ot 09.12.2008 № 25 (v red. postanovlenij Plenuma VS RF ot 23.12.2010 № 31, ot 24.05.2016 № 22, ot 25.06.2024 № 21) «O sudebnoj praktike po delam o prestupleniyax, svyazanny`x s narusheniem pravil dorozhnogo dvizheniya i e`kspluatacii transportny`x sredstv, a takzhe s ix nepravomerny`m zavladeniem bez celi xishheniya».
5.Bezborodov D.A., Zarubin A.V., Kravchenko R.M. [i dr.] Kommentarij k Postanovleniyu Plenuma Verxovnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii ot 9 dekabrya 2008 goda № 25 O sudebnoj praktike po delam o prestupleniyax, svyazanny`x s narusheniem pravil dorozhnogo dvizheniya i e`kspluatacii transportny`x sredstv, a takzhe s ix nepravomerny`m zavladeniem bez celi xishheniya s izmeneniyami, vnesenny`mi postanovleniyami Plenuma Verxovnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii ot 23 dekabrya 2010 goda № 31, ot 24 maya 2016 goda № 22 / pod obshh. red. A.N. Popova. SPb.: Sankt-Peterburgskij yuridicheskij institut (filial) Universiteta prokuratury` Rossijskoj Federacii, 2023.
6.Bezborodov D.A., Zarubin A.V., Kravchenko R.M. [i dr.] Prestupleniya protiv bezopasnosti dvizheniya ili e`kspluatacii transporta: uchebnoe posobie / pod red. A.N. Popova. SPb.: Sankt-Peterburgskij yuridicheskij institut (filial) Universiteta prokuratury` Rossijskoj Federacii, 2023.
7.Ugolovnoe pravo Rossii: sostoyanie i perspektivy` (transportny`e prestupleniya): materialy` VIII Vserossijskoj nauchno-prakticheskoj konferencii Volzhenkinskie chteniya, Sankt-Peterburg, 25 noyabrya 2022 goda / pod obshh. red. A.A. Sapozhkova. SPb.: SPbYuI (f) UP RF, 2023.
8.Midlovecz M.V. Problemy` opredeleniya viny` uchastnikov dorozhno-transportnogo prestupleniya // Ucheny`e zapiski Kry`mskogo federal`nogo universiteta imeni V.I. Vernadskogo. Yuridicheskie nauki. 2016. T. 2 (68). № 3. S. 84–89.

ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF ADVOCACY PRACTICE
Extreme Necessity and Justifiable Risk: Methodology for Comparing Harm and Behavioral Alternatives
BULAKHOVA Victoria Denisovna
Student of Institute of Law and Engineering of Pyatigorsk State University
357532, Pyatigorsk, Kalinin Ave., 9, Russian Federation
RIMAR Ivan Viktorovich
Student of Institute of Law and Engineering of Pyatigorsk State University
357532, Pyatigorsk, Kalinin Ave., 9, Russian Federation
Abstract: The article is devoted to the development of a methodology for assessing extreme necessity in criminal law through a systematic analysis of behavioral alternatives and comparison of protected interests. The aim of the study is to overcome the declarative nature of the «lesser harm» requirement enshrined in Article 39 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation by creating operational comparison criteria. Criteria for comparing inflicted and prevented harm have been formulated, a distinction between extreme necessity and justified risk has been drawn, and an original case-based assessment methodology has been proposed. The scientific novelty consists in the development of an «assessment triangle» integrating three parameters: the value of the protected interest, the probability of damage, and the availability of behavioral alternatives.
Keywords: extreme necessity, lesser harm, behavioral alternative, justified risk, criminal liability, circumstances excluding criminality of an act, axiology of criminal law, protected interests, case methodology, assessment triangle
References
1.Akimenko M.A., Popov A.P. Uchebno-metodicheskoe posobie dlya provedeniya prakticheskix zanyatij po kriminologii. Pyatigorsk: OOO Reklamno-informacionnoe agentstvo na Kavkazskix Mineral`ny`x Vodax, 2025. 144 s.
2.Kozlov A.P. Ugolovnoe pravo. Obshhaya chast`: uchebnik. 4-e izd., pererab. i dop. M.: Yurajt, 2021. S. 584.
3.Naumov A.V., Kibal`nik A.G. (red.). Ugolovnoe pravo. Obshhaya chast`: uchebnik dlya vuzov. 6-e izd., pererab. i dop. M.: Izdatel`stvo Yurajt, 2026. S. 448.
4.Baulin Yu.V. Obstoyatel`stva, isklyuchayushhie prestupnost` deyaniya. Xar`kov: Osnova, 1991. S. 360.
5.Roxin C., Greco L. Strafrecht. Allgemeiner Teil. Band I. 5. Aufl. München: C.H. Beck, 2020. S. 1212.
6.Ugolovny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ot 13.06.1996 № 63-FZ (red. ot 29.12.2025) (s izm. i dop., vstup. v silu s 20.01.2026).
7.Brilliantov A.V. Kommentarij k Ugolovnomu kodeksu Rossijskoj Federacii (postatejny`j). 4-e izd. M.: Prospekt, 2023. S. 1392.
8.Mixajlov V.I. Ob opredelenii ponyatiya «obstoya-tel`stvo, isklyuchayushhee prestupnost` deyaniya» // Yuridicheskij vestnik Samarskogo universiteta. 2021. № 3.
9.Orexov V.V. Neobxodimaya oborona i iny`e obstoyatel`stva, isklyuchayushhie prestupnost` deyaniya. SPb.: Yuridicheskij centr Press, 2003. S. 217.
10.Rarog A.I. Ugolovnoe pravo Rossii. Obshhaya chast`: uchebnik. 7-e izd., pererab. i dop. M.: E`ksmo, 2022. S. 496.
11.Sitkovskaya O.D. Psixologicheskij kommentarij k Ugolovnomu kodeksu Rossijskoj Federacii. M.: Norma, 2019. S. 560.
12.Pobegajlo E`.F. Problemy` pravoprimeneniya v sfere obstoyatel`stv, isklyuchayushhix prestupnost` deyaniya // Ugolovnoe pravo. 2021. № 4. S. 162–175.
13.Kadnikov N.G. Obstoyatel`stva, isklyuchayushhie prestupnost` deyaniya: problemy` kvalifikacii // Vestnik Moskovskogo universiteta MVD Rossii. 2023. № 2. S. 228–241.
14.Postanovlenie Plenuma Verxovnogo Suda RF ot 27.09.2012 № 19 (red. ot 09.12.2025) «O primenenii sudami zakonodatel`stva o neobxodimoj oborone i prichinenii vreda pri zaderzhanii licza, sovershivshego prestuplenie».
15.Naumov A.V. Vektor sovremenny`x napravlenij otechestvennoj doktriny` ugolovnogo prava (kak zakonodatel`stva, tak i ego primeneniya) // Pravo. Zhurnal Vy`sshej shkoly` e`konomiki. 2023. № 3.

JUSTICE AND LAW-ENFORCEMENT ACTIVITY IN THE EURASIAN SPACE
A Brief Analysis of Issues in Pre-Trial Proceedings in a Criminal Case Reopened Due to Newly Discovered or New Circumstances
GALETSKY Vitaly Sergeevich
Candidate of Law, Head of the Legal Department of the Moscow Expert Bureau for Quality Control of Work at Urban Facilities, Associate Professor of the Department of Criminal Law Disciplines at the International Law Institute
105066, Moscow, Nizhnyaya Krasnoselskaya Str., 13, Bldg. 1, Russian Federation
ANUCHINA Olga Vladimirovna
Candidate of Law, Head of the Department for the Study of Social Processes and Development of Comprehensive Issues of Law and Order Maintenance at the Research Center of the Academy of Management of the MIA of Russia
125993, Moscow, Zoi i Alexandra Kosmodemyanskikh Str., 8, Russian Federation
Abstract: The article discusses current theoretical and practical issues that arise during the investigation of criminal cases that have been reopened under Chapter 49 of the Criminal Procedure Code of the Russian Federation. Special attention is paid to the analysis of the discretionary powers and procedural actions of the prosecutor, the head of the investigative body, and the investigator during the pre-trial stage of the resumed proceedings. The article identifies legislative gaps and practical difficulties in establishing new and newly discovered circumstances, coordinating the actions of the participants in the criminal prosecution, calculating procedural deadlines, and determining the limits of the investigation. Based on the analysis of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation’s legal positions and the explanations of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, proposals have been formulated to improve the criminal procedure regulation.
Keywords: resumption of proceedings, new circumstances, newly discovered circumstances, prosecutor, head of the investigative body, investigator, investigation
References
1.Davy`dov V.A. Vozobnovlenie ugolovnogo sudoproizvodstva vvidu novy`x ili vnov` otkry`vshixsya obstoyatel`stv: teoriya i praktika ispravleniya sudebny`x oshibok. M.: Yurajt, 2012. S. 313.
2.Davy`dov V.A. Vozobnovlenie ugolovnogo sudoproizvodstva vvidu novy`x ili vnov` otkry`vshixsya obsto-yatel`stv: avtoref. dis. … d-ra yurid. nauk. M., 2011. S. 50.
3.Davy`dov V.A. Vozobnovlenie proizvodstva po ugolovnomu delu vvidu novy`x ili vnov` otkry`vshixsya obstoyatel`stv // Ugolovnoe sudoproizvodstvo: teoriya i praktika / pod red. N.A. Kolokolova. M.: Yurajt, 2011. S. 927–977.
4.Davy`dov V.A. O nekotory`x problemax regulirovaniya poryadka rassledovaniya obstoyatel`stv, vlekushhix vozobnovlenie ugolovnogo sudoproizvodstva // Ugolovnoe sudoproizvodstvo: teoriya i praktika. M.: Yurajt, 2011. S. 942–952.
5.Zagajnova Yu.V., Didenko N.S., Popova A.V., Kurilov S.I. Uchastie prokurora v ugolovnom sudoproizvodstve: uchebnoe posobie. Rostov-na-Donu, 2025. S. 73.
6.Oksyuk T.L. Aktual`ny`e problemy` vozobnovleniya proizvodstva po ugolovnomu delu vvidu novy`x ili vnov` otkry`vshixsya obstoyatel`stv // Zakonnost`. 2014. № 1. S. 14–19.
7.Oksyuk T.L. Usmotrenie prokurora v ugolovnom processe // Zakonnost`. 2010. № 3. S. 3–9.
8.Oksyuk T.L. Postanovlenie prinyato – problemy` ostalis` // Zakonnost`. 2022. № 4. S. 15–19.
9.Svodny`e statisticheskie svedeniya o deyatel`nosti federal`ny`x sudov obshhej yurisdikcii i mirovy`x sudej // Oficial`ny`j sajt Sudebnogo departamenta pri Verxovnom Sude Rossijskoj Federacii [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: http.scdep.ruid=79.
10.Postanovlenie Plenuma Verxovnogo Suda RF ot 14.12.2021 № 43 «O primenenii sudami norm glavy` 49 Ugolovno-processual`nogo kodeksa Rossijskoj Federacii, reguliruyushhix vozobnovlenie proizvodstva po ugolovnomu delu vvidu novy`x ili vnov` otkry`vshixsya obstoyatel`stv po zaklyucheniyu prokurora» // Byulleten` Verxovnogo Suda RF. 2022. № 2.
11.Postanovlenie Konstitucionnogo Suda RF ot 02.07.2013 № 16-P «Po delu o proverke konstitucionnosti polozhenij chasti pervoj stat`i 237 Ugolovno-processual`nogo kodeksa Rossijskoj Federacii v svyazi s zhaloboj grazhdanina Respubliki Uzbekistan B.T. Gadaeva i zaprosom Kurganskogo oblastnogo suda» // SPS «Konsul`tant Plyus» [E`lektronny`j resurs].

JUSTICE AND LAW-ENFORCEMENT ACTIVITY IN THE EURASIAN SPACE
The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Crimes: Problems of Criminal Qualification and Prospects of Legislative Regulation
BASKHANOV Akhmed Magomedovich
Associate Professor of the Department of Criminal Law of the Educational and Scientific Complex for Preliminary Investigation in the Internal Affairs Bodies of the Volgograd Academy of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia
400075, Volgograd, Istoricheskaya str., 130, Russian Federation
KHUCHIEV Ramzan Rustamovich
Student of the 5th course of the faculty of training investigators of the Volgograd Academy of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, junior police lieutenant
400075, Volgograd, Istoricheskaya str., 130, Russian Federation
Abstract: The article analyzes the current problems of criminal law assessment of acts committed with the use of artificial intelligence technologies (hereinafter – AI). The authors explore the legal nature of AI as a means of committing a crime and consider the issues of qualification of crimes committed with the use of deepfakes and autonomous systems.
Keywords: artificial intelligence, criminal liability, qualification of crimes, deepfake, subject of a crime
References
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3.Berg A.L. Iskusstvenny`j intellekt i problemy` ugolovnoj otvetstvennosti // Vestnik Kazanskogo yuridicheskogo instituta MVD Rossii. 2023. № 4 (62). S. 13–19.
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6.Yakovleva E.O. Iskusstvenny`j intellekt kak kriminogenny`j faktor: problemy` kvalifikacii i taktiki rassledovaniya // Policejskaya deyatel`nost`. 2025. № 6. S. 112–115.
7.O nekotory`x voprosax sudebnoj praktiki po ugolovny`m delam o prestupleniyax v sfere komp`yuternoj informacii, a takzhe iny`x prestupleniyax, sovershenny`x s ispol`zovaniem e`lektronny`x ili informacionno-telekommunikacionny`x setej, vklyuchaya set` «Internet»: postanovlenie Plenuma Verxovnogo Suda RF ot 15.12.2022 № 37. Dostup iz sprav.-pravovoj sistemy` «Konsul`tantPlyus».

JUSTICE AND LAW-ENFORCEMENT ACTIVITY IN THE EURASIAN SPACE
The Role of Forensic Dna Databases in Crime Detection and Investigation
KAZANOV Alexander Alekseevich
Postgraduate Student of the South Russian Institute of Management, a branch of the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration
344002, Rostov-on-Don, Pushkinskaya Str., 70, Russian Federation
Abstract: Modern criminalistic practice carried out by the subjects of crime detection and investigation is unthinkable without the use of technical means. Forensic science has given investigators valuable knowledge, thanks to which they have learned how to effectively identify and examine evidence. The author notes the alarming dynamics of the increase in the number of unsolved crimes classified as grave and especially grave. The main reason preventing the detection and investigation of a significant proportion of illegal acts is the inability to identify the perpetrator. To identify the subject, the genetic profile of the suspect or accused person is compared with the biological material found at the crime scene. At the stage of the investigation, the method of assistance may be preliminary (general). The main purpose of this method is to confirm by the bodies of inquiry the fact of the commission of a crime and to determine the circle of persons related to it. In this context, the use of government genetic DNA databases is becoming a tool for identifying potential suspects, analyzing their movements, and establishing involvement in a crime. Based on the conducted research, the author has classified the advantages, problems, and ways of developing DNA databases as a way to facilitate the detection and investigation of crimes. To achieve these objectives, the following methods were used: comparative analysis, generalization of empirical data, and study of judicial practice. A statistical method was also used.
Keywords: method of assistance, DNA analysis, genetic database, crime investigation, crime detection, statistical analysis
References
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10.Rabota DNK-laboratorii E`KCz GU MVD Rossii po Moskovskoj oblasti v ramkax realizacii gosudarstvennoj programmy` Rossijskoj Federacii «Obespechenie obshhestvennogo poryadka i protivodejstvie prestupnosti» // Oficial`ny`j sajt glavnogo upravleniya MVD Rossii po Moskovskoj oblasti. 2024 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://50.mvd.rf/news/item/55446604.
11.Melikyan T. Genomnaya registraciya: dlya kogo v Rossii ona stanet obyazatel`noj // Delovoj zhurnal «Profil`». 2023 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://profile.ru/society/genomnaya-registraciya-dlya-kogo-v-rossii-ona-stanet-obyazatelnoj-1259766/.
12.Ry`bakova M. Xranit` do vy`yasneniya: ch`i DNK-kody` popadut v gosudarstvennuyu bazu genomnoj informacii // Delovoj zhurnal «Profil`». 2024 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://profile.ru/society/hranit-do-vyyasneniya-chi-dnk-kody-popadut-v-gosudarstvennuju-bazu-genomnoj-informacii-1450434.

JUSTICE AND LAW-ENFORCEMENT ACTIVITY IN THE EURASIAN SPACE
Current Issues of Defining Criminal Bankruptcy in the Criminal Law of the Russian Federation
MOVROVYAN Armine Arsenovna
Advocate, Member of the Sevastopol Bar Association, Lecturer of the Criminal Law and Procedure Department of the Law Institute of Sevastopol State University
299053, Sevastopol, Universitetskaya Str., 33, Russian Federation
Abstract: The article is devoted to the analysis of topical issues of the definition of criminal bankruptcy in the criminal law of the Russian Federation. The article concludes that the types of crimes combined into the concept of «criminal bankruptcy» must be distinguished depending on the formation of legal grounds for recognizing the relevant entity as insolvent.
Keywords: bankruptcy, criminal bankruptcy, intentional bankruptcy, fictitious bankruptcy, debtor, creditor, latency, signs of insolvency, economic crime
References
1.Ugolovny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ot 13 iyunya 1996 g. № 63-FZ (v red. ot 29 dekabrya 2025 g. № 534-FZ) // Sobranie zakonodatel`stva RF. 1996. № 25. St. 2954.
2.Federal`ny`j zakon ot 26 oktyabrya 2002 g. № 127-FZ «O nesostoyatel`nosti (bankrot-stve)» // Oficial`ny`j internet-portal pravovoj informacii [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: http://www.pravo.gov.ru/.
3.Statisticheskaya informaciya Edinom federal`nom reestre svedenij o bankrotstve po sostoyaniyu na 01 yanvarya 2026 g. // Oficial`ny`j internet-portal Edinogo federal`nogo reestra yuridicheski znachimy`x svedenij o faktax deyatel`nosti yuridicheskix licz, individual`ny`x predprinimatelej i iny`x sub``ektov e`konomicheskoj deyatel`nosti [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://bankrot.fedresurs.ru/.
4.Goncharova K.S., Maklakova V.V. Kriminal`noe bankrotstvo: ponyatie i formy` // E`ko-nomika i biznes: teoriya i praktika. 2024. № 7 (113). S. 65-70.
5.Pozdy`shev R.S. Voprosy` sootnosheniya kriminal`ny`x bankrotstv // Yuridicheskaya nauka i praktika: Vestnik Nizhegorodskoj akademii MVD Rossii. 2024. № 2 (66). S. 97-101.
6.Razy`graeva E.N. Kriminal`noe bankrotstvo – forma xishheniya? // Zhurnal rossijskogo prava. 2017. № 5 (245). S. 97-104.
7.Prigovor Kanevskogo rajonnogo suda Krasnodarskogo kraya ot 26 avgusta 2025 g. po delu № 1-174/2025 // Baza sudebny`x aktov, sudebny`x reshenij i normativny`x doku-mentov «Sudebny`e i normativny`e akty` RF» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: http://sudact.ru/.
8.Prigovor Perovskogo rajonnogo suda goroda Moskvy` ot 13 avgusta 2025 g. po delu № 01-0518/2025 // Baza sudebny`x aktov, sudebny`x reshenij i normativny`x dokumentov «Sudebny`e i normativny`e akty` RF» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: http://sudact.ru/.

JUSTICE AND LAW-ENFORCEMENT ACTIVITY IN THE EURASIAN SPACE
The Personality of a Military Serviceman Who Has Left His Military Unit or Committed Desertion, as an Element of Criminalistic Characteristics
SATAEV Ruslan Rashidovich
Advocate of the Bar Chamber of the Republic of Bashkortostan
450000, Ufa, Ayskaya str., 79, Russian Federation
Abstract: This publication examines the criminalistics features of the personality of a serviceman who has left his military unit without permission or has committed desertion. A differentiated approach is applied to the study of the personality of a conscripted serviceman and a contract serviceman. The psychophysical features of the personality of servicemen of different age groups are considered. The article explores the modern determinants that influence the personality of a serviceman, which, together with the existing personality traits, contribute to the commission of the crimes under study.
Keywords: military service, crime, deserter, unauthorized leave, conscript, contract service, criminal personality
References
1.Aver`yanova T.V., Belkin R.S., Koruxov Yu.G., Rossinskaya E.R. Kriminalistika / Pod red. R.S. Belkina. 2-e izd., pererab. i dop. M.: Norma, 2004. S. 693.
2.Annenkov S.I. Lichnost` moshennika kak e`lement kriminalisticheskoj xarakteristiki // Lichnost` prestupnika i ugolovnaya otvetstvennost`. Saratov: Izd-vo Saratovskogo un-ta, 1981. S. 121.
3.Antonyan Yu.M., Kudryavcev V.N., E`minov V.E. Lichnost` prestupnika. SPb.: Yuridicheskij centr Press, 2004. S. 260–261.
4.Bagratyan A.L. Osobennosti rassledovaniya samovol`nogo ostavleniya voinskoj chasti ili mesta sluzhby` po zakonodatel`stvu Rossijskoj Federacii i Respubliki Armeniya: sravnitel`no-pravovoe issledovanie: dis. ... kand. yurid. nauk. M., 2009. S. 77.
5.Vedernikov N.T. Lichnost` prestupnika kak e`lement kriminalisticheskoj xarakteristiki // Kriminalisticheskaya xarakteristika prestuplenij. M.: Vsesoyuzny`j in-t po izucheniyu prichin i razrabotke mer preduprezhdeniya prestupnosti, 1984. S. 74.
6.Glazy`rin F.V. Kriminalisticheskoe izuchenie lichnosti obvinyaemogo: avtoref. dis. ... dokt. yurid. nauk. Sverdlovsk, 1973. S. 13.
7.Kriminologiya / Pod obshh. red. A.I. Dolgovoj. M.: INFRA-M – NORMA, 1997. S. 581.
8.Kudryavcev A.V. Organizaciya raskry`tiya i rassledovaniya dezertirstva i samovol`nogo ostavleniya chasti: uchebnoe posobie / A.V. Kudryavcev, A.E. Mixajlov, N.A. Maksimkina. Vladimir, 2017. S. 30.
9.Lasokina N.D., Ushakov G.K. Medicinskaya psixologiya. 2-e izd., pererab. i dop. M.: Medicina, 1984. S. 272.
10.Morgulenko E.A. Prestupnost` voennosluzhashhix v sovremenny`x politiko-e`konomicheskix usloviyax: tendencii i prognozy` // Aktual`ny`e problemy` pravovogo obespecheniya proxozhdeniya voennoj sluzhby` v Rossijskoj Federacii. M.: Za prava voennosluzhashhix, 2006. Vy`p. 62. S. 353.
11.E`minov V.E., Maczkevich I.M. Prestupnost` voennosluzhashhix: istoricheskij, kriminologicheskij, social`no-pravovoj analiz. M.: PENATES-PENATY`, 1999. S. 154–155.
12.Sto shagov nazad: kak soldaty` dezertiruyut s nachala SVO [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://news.ru/society/sto-shagov-nazad-kak-i-pochemu-voennye-begut-iz-chastej?ysclid=mlwim4l1iz529514048.
13.Minoborony` Rossii zafiksirovalo 50,5 ty`s. sluchaev dezertirstva i samovol`nogo ostavleniya chasti za 2024 god [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://elgpwfjx-bsccljbcrq-ez.a.run.app/news/minoborony-rossii-zafiksirovalo-505-tys-sluchaev-dezertirstva-i-samovolnogo-ostavleniya-chasti?ysclid=mlwip2yry1926520729.

JUSTICE AND LAW-ENFORCEMENT ACTIVITY IN THE EURASIAN SPACE
Unusual Circumstances as a Factor Determining the Special Procedure for Criminal Proceedings
MIKHAILOV Petr Igorevich
Applicant of the Department of Criminal Law of Russian Customs Academy
140009, Moscow Region, Lyubertsy, Komsomolsky Prospekt, 4, Russian Federation
Abstract: This article examines various terms characterising «non-standard», critical situations through the prism of their lexical and legal meanings, and analyses the special administrative legal regimes introduced when such situations arise. The content of the legal regime and the special legal regime is explained, their features relevant to criminal proceedings are examined, and attention is drawn to the emergence in recent years of new extraordinary circumstances necessitating the introduction of certain restrictions and a special order of daily life, which, however, do not yet have a corresponding regulatory framework and have not fully developed into independent legal regimes (self-isolation, special military operation). The author examines the impact of various types of emergency situations on the preliminary investigation, concludes that the problematic aspects they give rise to for investigations are homogeneous, formulates a definition and the characteristics of an emergency situation for the purposes of criminal proceedings, and substantiates the conclusion regarding the need to establish special investigative mechanisms applicable in emergency situations.
Keywords: emergency, exceptional circumstances, extraordinary circumstances, criminal proceedings in emergencies, special procedure for criminal proceedings
References
1.Popugaev Yu.I. K voprosu o sushhnosti special`ny`x administrativno-pravovy`x rezhimov v kontekste publichno-pravovoj problematiki // Zakon i pravo. 2024. № 5 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/k-voprosu-o-suschnosti-spetsialnyh-administrativno-pravovyh-rezhimov-v-kontekste-publichno-pravovoy-problematiki.
2.Bol`shoj tolkovy`j slovar` russkogo yazy`ka pod obshh. red. S.A. Kuzneczova // Spravochno-informacionny`j portal «Gramota.ru» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://gramota.ru/poisk?query= %D1 %87 %D1 %80 %D0 %B5 %D0 %B7 %D0 %B2 %D1 %8B %D1 %87 %D0 %B0 %D0 %B9 %D0 %BD %D1 %8B %D0 %B9&mode=slovari&dicts[]=42.
3.Federal`ny`j zakon ot 21.12.1994 № 68-FZ «O zashhite naseleniya i territorij ot chrezvy`chajny`x situacij prirodnogo i texnogennogo xaraktera» // Spravochno-pravovaya sistema «Konsul`tantPlyus» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_5295/.
4.Starostin S.A. Sistema chrezvy`chajny`x administrativno-pravovy`x rezhimov: problemy` teorii, zakonodatel`stva i praktiki // Vestn. Tom. gos. un-ta. Pravo. 2023. № 48 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/sistema-chrezvychaynyh-administrativno-pravovyh-rezhimov-problemy-teorii-zakonodatelstva-i-praktiki.
5.Gromov M.A. Ponyatie «chrezvy`chajny`e pravovy`e rezhimy`»: ix vidy`, xarakterizuyushhie priznaki, klassifikaciya // Trudy` Akademii upravleniya MVD Rossii. 2013. № 3 (27).
6.Starostin S.A. Chrezvy`chajny`e administrativno-pravovy`e rezhimy`: monografiya // Spravochno-pravovaya sistema «Konsul`tantPlyus» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/.
7.Gromov M.A. Chrezvy`chajny`e pravovy`e rezhimy`, kak podsistema administrativno-pravovy`x rezhimov // Probely` v rossijskom zakonodatel`stve. 2008. № 1. S. 394-396.
8.Federal`ny`j zakon ot 06.03.2006 № 35-FZ «O protivodejstvii terrorizmu» // Spravochno-pravovaya sistema «Konsul`tantPlyus» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_58840/.
9.Antonov Ya.A. Organizaciya obespecheniya podrazdeleniyami policii prav cheloveka v usloviyax osobogo pravovogo rezhima kontrterroristicheskoj operacii // Zakon i pravo. 2024. № 3 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/organizatsiya-obespecheniya-podrazdeleniyami-politsii-prav-cheloveka-v-usloviyah-osobogo-pravovogo-rezhima-kontrterroristicheskoy.
10.Mixajlov P.I. Priostanovlenie predvaritel`nogo sledstviya po ugolovnomu delu v chrezvy`chajny`x usloviyax na primere pandemii koronavirusa (covid-19) // Evrazijskaya advokatura. 2020. № 4 (47) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/priostanovlenie-predvaritelnogo-sledstviya-po-ugolovnomu-delu-v-chrezvychaynyh-usloviyah-na-primere-pandemii-koronavirusa-covid-19.

JUSTICE AND LAW-ENFORCEMENT ACTIVITY IN THE EURASIAN SPACE
Conflict of Interest as a Source of Motivation to Commit a Crime
PROSHIN Vladimir Mikhailovich
Advocate of the Moscow Bar Association «Zashchita»
123056, Moscow, Zoologicheskaya Str., 30, Building 2, Flat III, Russian Federation
Abstract: Planning and taking measures in a state of conflict of interests by one of the parties (or both parties) to ensure personal interest at the expense of infringement of the interest of the opposite party leads to the emergence of a motive to commit a crime. Tolerated dishonesty in resolving a conflict of interests of one of the parties creates a motivational basis for the actions of the subject to satisfy the need to achieve an interest recognized as a priority in relation to the interest of the conflicting party, and from this moment, criminal patterns, controlling the cause-and-effect movement of the subject to the event of a crime, give impetus to the formation of the circumstances of the event of a crime. Therefore, when implementing a decision to satisfy one party’s need to secure their conflicting interests at the expense of the opposing party, there is every reason to consider the conflict of interest a possible stage in the development of criminal patterns leading to the commission of a crime. Moreover, the conflict of interest may be with either an individual or a public entity. This is typical in the commission of any intentional crime.
Keywords: conflict of interest, motive for committing a crime, forensic characteristics of a crime, crime event, mechanism for committing a crime, criminal event, criminal patterns, subject of a crime, circumstances of a crime event, public interest, private interest, traces of a crime, ideal trace of a crime, material trace of a crime
References
1.Kvalifikaciya korrupcionny`x prestuplenij v sfere e`konomiki: kurs lekcij / pod red. A.M. Bagmeta. M.: Yuniti-Dana, 2015. S. 20.
2.Federal`ny`j zakon ot 27.07.2004 № 79-FZ «O gosudarstvennoj grazhdanskoj sluzhbe Rossijskoj Federacii» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_48601/.
3.Federal`ny`j zakon ot 25.12.2008 № 273-FZ «O protivodejstvii korrupcii» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_82959/.

JUSTICE AND LAW-ENFORCEMENT ACTIVITY IN THE EURASIAN SPACE
Criminalistic Characteristics of the Circulation of Falsified Medical Devices (Article 238.1 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation)
GLUSHKOVA Mariia Konstantinovna
Postgraduate Student of the Department of Criminalistics of Faculty of Law of Lomonosov Moscow State University
119991, Moscow, Leninskie Gory, 1, building 13, Russian Federation
Abstract: The article analyzes court decisions issued under Article 238.1 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation for the period 2015–2025, in which counterfeit medical devices were the subject of the crime. The article presents conclusions on the specific features of the main elements of the criminalistic characteristics of the crime in relation to the circulation of counterfeit medical devices, which allows for an accurate assessment of the current investigative situations and the selection of optimal methods for investigation.
Keywords: Аrticle 238.1 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, falsified medical devices, criminalistic characteristics, investigation methodologу
References
1.Baxin V.P. Kriminalisticheskaya xarakteristika prestuplenij kak e`lement rassledovaniya // Vestnik kriminalistiki. M., 2000. Vy`p. 1. S. 16–22.
2.Belkin R.S. Kriminalistika: problemy`, tendencii, perspektivy`. Ot teorii – k praktike. M., 1988. S. 304.
3.Fajzraxmanov N.F. Nekotory`e voprosy` kriminalisticheskoj xarakteristiki oborota fal`sificirovanny`x i nedobrokachestvenny`x lekarstvenny`x sredstv, biologicheski aktivny`x dobavok // Vestnik Vladimirskogo yuridicheskogo instituta. 2012. № 1 (22). S. 148–152.
4.Vardanyan G.A. Metodika rassledovaniya prestuplenij, svyazanny`x s proizvodstvom i obrashheniem ne sootvetstvuyushhix licenzionno-razreshitel`ny`m trebovaniyam i (ili) fal`sificirovanny`x, nedobrokachestvenny`x, nezaregistrirovanny`x lekarstvenny`x sredstv, medicinskix izdelij ili biologicheski aktivny`x dobavok: dis. … kand. yurid. nauk. Rostov-na-Donu, 2015. S. 273.
5.Semelev V.N. Metodika rassledovaniya prestuplenij v sfere obrashheniya medicinskix izdelij: dis. … kand. yurid. nauk. Saransk, 2025. S. 306.

JUSTICE AND LAW-ENFORCEMENT ACTIVITY IN THE EURASIAN SPACE
Civil-Law Regime of Volunteering in the Field of Public Order Protection: Classification and Regulatory Model
PESHKOV Boris Sergeyevich
Postgraduate Student of the State University of Management, Deputy Director of the «Country for Children» Charitable Foundation
123308, Moscow, Marshal Zhukov Avenue, 2, Office 19/3, Russian Federation
Abstract: The article examines the civil-law regime of voluntary activity in the law-enforcement sphere, using citizens’ participation in the protection of public order as an example. Drawing on an analysis of Federal Laws No. 135-FZ and No. 44-FZ, legislative history materials, law-enforcement practice and statistical data, the author substantiates a classification of types of volunteering according to the degree of public-law integration and develops a two-tier model of the relationship between the general and special regulatory regimes. It is shown that the activity of members of voluntary people’s guards is characterized by maximum public-law integration while retaining the basic private-law features of volunteering, which makes it possible to redefine the limits of the civil-law status of the volunteer in the law-enforcement sphere.
Keywords: volunteering, volunteer, voluntary people’s guard, protection of public order, civil-law regime, comparative legal analysis
References
1.Blinova Yu.V. O pravovoj prirode dogovora o dobrovol`cheskoj (volonterskoj) deyatel`nosti: sravnitel`no-pravovoj analiz // Lex Russica. 2020. № 4 (73). S. 152–164.
2.Gejzhan N.F., Guz O.M., Talyanina I.A., Dushkina E.V., Starova E.A. Metodologicheskie osnovy` i osobennosti podgotovki volonterov i chlenov dobrovol`ny`x narodny`x druzhin // Perspektivy` nauki i obrazovaniya. 2022. № 3 (57). S. 38–54.
3.Dobrov A.N. Problemy` privlecheniya grazhdan k uchastiyu v oxrane obshhestvennogo poryadka // Vestnik Vostochno-Sibirskogo instituta MVD Rossii. 2022. № 4. S. 61–68.
4.Zhavoronkov R.N. Grazhdansko-pravovoe regulirovanie dobrovol`cheskoj i blagotvoritel`noj deyatel`nosti v Rossijskoj Federacii: avtoref. dis. … kand. yurid. nauk. M., 2004.
5.Maleina M.N. Pravovaya priroda, struktura svyazej i soderzhanie dogovora o volonterskoj deyatel`nosti // Zhurnal rossijskogo prava. 2017. № 8 (248).
6.Novikov D.O. Primenenie fizicheskoj sily` dobrovol`ny`mi narodny`mi druzhinnikami, v ramkax federal`nogo zakona «Ob uchastii grazhdan v oxrane obshhestvennogo poryadka»: voprosy` teorii // Pravo i politika. 2016. T. 7. S. 199.
7.Peshkov B.S. Otvetstvennost` za vred, prichinyonny`j v xode dobrovol`cheskoj deyatel`nosti // Obrazovanie i pravo. 2025. № 4. S. 430–433.
8.Semenov A.A. Dobrovol`naya narodnaya druzhina kak vid molodezhnoj volonterskoj deyatel`nosti // Nauka i shkola. 2015. № 2 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/dobrovolnaya-narodnaya-druzhina-kak-vid-molodezhnoy-volonterskoy-deyatelnosti (data obrashheniya: 08.02.2026).
9.Fetisova E.A. Dobrovol`naya narodnaya druzhina kak vid volonterstva // Pravo i pravoporyadok v fokuse nauchny`x issledovanij: Sbornik nauchny`x trudov / Pod obshhej redakciej S.E. Turkulecz, E.V. Listopadovoj. Tom Vy`pusk 2. Xabarovsk: Dal`nevostochny`j gosudarstvenny`j universitet putej soobshheniya, 2021. S. 425–432.
10.Xomutov M.V. Osobennosti uchastiya narodny`x druzhin, kazach`ix obshhestv i obshhestvenny`x ob``edinenij pravooxranitel`noj napravlennosti v preduprezhdenii prestuplenij // Obshhestvo i pravo. 2024. № 1 (87). S. 16–21.
11.Organizatory` dobrovol`cheskoj deyatel`nosti // Edinaya informacionnaya sistema v sfere razvitiya dobrovol`-chestva (volonterstva) «Dobro.rf» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: dobro.ru/search.
12.Reshenie Zheleznodorozhnogo rajonnogo suda goroda Ul`yanovska po delu № 2-1464/2023 ot 17.07.2023 // Sudebny`e i normativny`e akty` RF [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://sudact.ru/regular/doc/t4hQV5bT5pgv/.
13.Reshenie Leninskogo rajonnogo suda g. Ul`yanovska po delu № 2-3562/2023 ot 17.07.2023 // Sudebny`e i normativny`e akty` RF [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://sudact.ru/regular/doc/STKcDXDo6ml3/.
14.Reshenie Dombarovskogo rajonnogo suda Orenburgskoj oblasti po delu № 2-21/2018 (2-368/2017) ot 08.02.2018 // Sudebny`e i normativny`e akty` RF [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://sudact.ru/regular/doc/iIDe5EAIP8Zp/.

ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF LEGAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
Typology of the State Through the Prism of Relations with the Individual: a General Theoretical Approach
TEMIROVA Radmila Rasulovna
Postgraduate Student of the Karachay-Cherkess Branch of the Moscow Financial-Industrial University «Synergy»
369000, Cherkessk, Lenin Avenue, 83, Russian Federation
Abstract: The article proposes a general theoretical typology of states based on the nature of their relations with the individual. The paper substantiates that the relationship between the state and the individual can serve as an independent and system-forming typological criterion. The author identifies the key parameters of such a typology and formulates a generalized classification of states depending on the degree of legal autonomy of the individual, the level of participation in public affairs and the orientation of state power toward the protection or restriction of rights and freedoms. The significance of the work lies in expanding the methodological tools of the theory of state and law and in clarifying the heuristic potential of a individual-centered approach to the typology of the state.
Keywords: typology of the state, individual, human rights, rule-of-law state, authoritarian state, paternalistic state, theory of state and law
Список источников
1.Марченко М.Н. Теория государства и права. Элементарный курс: учебное пособие. 3-е изд., доп. М.: Норма: ИНФРА-М, 2025. С. 304. ISBN 978-5-91768-696-7 [Электронный ресурс]. URL: https://znanium.ru/catalog/product/2124764.
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12.Норт Д. Институты, институциональные изменения и функционирование экономики / пер. с англ. М.: Фонд экономической книги «Начала», 1997. С. 180. [Электронный ресурс]. URL: https://gtmarket.ru/library/basis/6310.
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15.Касьяненко М.А. О правовых и «общегражданских» механизмах противодействия этническим конфликтам // Государственная власть и местное самоуправление. 2010. № 3. С. 6-8.

ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF LEGAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
Elements of the Civil-Law Intellectual Property Protection Mechanism in the Digital Field
NIKITASHENKO Vadim Vitalyevich
Postgraduate Student of the Ulyanovsk State University
432970, Ulyanovsk, Goncharova Str., 40/9, Russian Federation
Abstract: The article examines the system of elements of the civil-law mechanism of intellectual property protection in the digital field. Each element is analyzed in relation to its characteristics and role in the mechanism. In particular, among the examined elements are: instruments of legal regulation, jural relations, acts of realization of subjective rights and legal obligations, and prescriptions.
Keywords: intellectual property, civil-law mechanism, elements of the civil-law mechanism, intellectual property protection
References
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9.Borulenkov Yu.P. Yuridicheskij fakt kak obraz obstoyatel`stva real`noj dejstvitel`nosti // Biznes v zakone. E`konomiko-yuridicheskij zhurnal. 2013. № 1. S. 122-126.
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11.Byalt V.S., Chimarov S.Yu. Akt primeneniya prava: teoretiko-pravovaya xarakteristika // Tendencii razvitiya nauki i obrazovaniya. 2023. № 95-3. S. 94-96.
12.Vasil`ev V.V. Grazhdansko-pravovaya norma kak fundamental`ny`j e`lement sistemnoj struktury` grazhdanskogo prava // Probely` v rossijskom zakonodatel`stve. 2012. № 2. S. 52-55.
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19.Puzy`reva E.V. Normy` rossijskogo prava: teoreticheskie aspekty` ponimaniya i kachestvennogo vy`razheniya: avtoref. dis. … kand. yurid. nauk. Sankt-Peterburg, 2007.
20.Rozhkova M.A. Teorii yuridicheskix faktov grazhdanskogo i processual`nogo prava: ponyatiya, klassifikacii, osnovy` vzaimodejstviya: dis. … dokt. yurid. nauk. Moskva, 2010.
21.Rotan` V.G. Sistema grazhdanskix pravootnoshenij i ix struktura // Vlast` Zakona. 2019. № 4 (40). S. 57-88.
22.Fedorov M.V. Teoriya gosudarstva i prava: uchebnoe posobie. Sankt-Peterburg: SPbGAU, 2023. 202 s. [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://e.lanbook.com/book/340082.
23.Shagieva R.V. Pravootnoshenie i ix rol` v realizacii prava // Vestnik Rossijskogo universiteta druzhby` narodov. Seriya: Yuridicheskie nauki. 2015. № 3. S. 92-99.
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25.Shershenevich G.F. Izbrannoe: V 6 t. T. 4 vklyuchaya Obshhuyu teoriyu prava. Moskva: Statut, 2016. 752 s. [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/edu/student/download_books/book/shershenevich_gf_izbrannoe_t4/.

ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF LEGAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
Is Digital Crime a Real Legal Institution or an Unnecessary Category?
GRIGOREV Pavel Aleksandrovich
Candidate of Law, Independent Researcher
107045, Moscow, Ananyevsky Lane, 5, bldg. 12, Russian Federation
Abstract: Critical analysis of the emerging criminal law concept of digital crime is presented in this article. The author examines theoretical approaches to defining and characterizing digital crime and assesses their applicability in criminal law regulation and in theory of criminal law. Special attention is paid to the issue of enacting the Digital Code of the Russian Federation as a potential source of norms regulating digital crimes. It is concluded that at present, digital crime is more of a theoretical legal construct than a truly formed institution of criminal law.
Keywords: codification of digital law, computer-related crime, Digital Code of the Russian Federation, digital crime, information-related crime
References
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2.Rozhkova M.A. Yavlyaetsya li cifrovoe pravo otrasl`yu prava i nuzhno li ozhidat` poyavleniya Cifrovogo kodeksa? // Xozyajstvo i pravo. 2020. № 4. S. 3–13.
3.Dejneko A.V. Normativny`e i social`ny`e osnovaniya kodifikacii informaci-onnogo zakonodatel`stva Rossijskoj Federacii // Aktual`ny`e problemy` ros-sijskogo prava. 2025. T. 20. № 1. S. 76–85.
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ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF LEGAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
Management of Condominiums: The Significance of Dispositiveness for Russian Law in Light of Foreign Experience
KONAROVSKII Nikita Alexandrovich
Independent Researcher
119991, GSP-1, Moscow, Leninskie Gory, 1, bld. 13, room 526 A, Russian Federation
Abstract: The article is devoted to the problem of organizing the management of apartment ownership, which is relevant to the domestic legal system, and identifying the dominant role of dispositiveness in terms of self-government within the community of residents. The article examines independent models of apartment ownership in various jurisdictions and establishes similarities with the structure of corporate governance in legal entities. The author critically assesses the prospects for applying foreign experience in the Russian context. The author identifies the role of dispositiveness and self-government in apartment ownership. The author summarizes the best contemporary practices that can be proposed to the domestic legal system for better regulation of the sensitive area of housing public relations.
Keywords: apartment ownership, dispositiveness, civil law community, management, condominium
References
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2.Anan`ev A.E. Priroda otnoshenij mezhdu upravlyayushhej kompaniej i chlenami poe`tazhnoj sobstvennosti // Civilistika. 2023. № 3. S. 56–82.
3.Bevzenko R.S. Zemel`ny`j uchastok s postrojkami na nem: vvedenie v rossijskoe pravo nedvizhimosti [E`lektronnoe izdanie]. M.: M-Logos, 2017. S. 64–69.
4.Egorov A.V. K voprosu o razgranichenii pomeshhenij na obshhie i individual`ny`e v rezhime «poe`tazhnoj» sobstvennosti // O sobstvennosti: Sb. st. k yubileyu K.I. Sklovskogo. M.: Statut, 2015. S. 162.
5.Egorov A.V. Poe`tazhnaya sobstvennost` v Rossii: dorozhnaya karta reform // Civilistika. 2023. № 3. S. 11–37.
6.Machexina A.V. Soobshhestvo sobstvennikov pomeshhenij v zdanii kak sub``ekt prava: evropejskij opy`t i rossijskie perspektivy` // Vestnik grazhdanskogo prava. 2024. № 6. S. 153–197.
7.Milovskaya A.D. Isklyuchenie iz kondominiuma kak mera otvetstvennosti: zarubezhny`j opy`t i perspektivy` razvitiya v Rossii // Veshhny`e prava: sbornik rabot vy`pusknikov Rossijskoj shkoly` chastnogo prava, posvyashhenny`j pamyati Aleksandra L`vovicha Makovskogo. M.: Statut, 2020. S. 178–225.
8.Suxanov E.A. Zhilishhnaya (e`tazhnaya) sobstvennost` v evropejskix pravoporyadkax // Osnovny`e problemy` chastnogo prava: Sbornik statej k yubileyu d.yu.n., professora A.L. Makovskogo / otv. red. V.V. Vitryanskij, E.A. Suxanov. M., 2010 // SPS «Konsul`tantPlyus».
9.Abramenko/Bearbeiter. Handbuch WEG. Bonn: Deutscher Anwalt Verlag, 2009. S. 88, § 1, Rn. 177.
10.Aznar N.S. New Trends in Condominium Law and Access to Housing in Post-crisis Spain // Private Communities and Urban Governance / Ed. by A. Lehavi. Switzerland: Cham, 2016. P. 165–190.
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14.Easthope H., Nouwelant R., van den., Thompson S. Apartment ownership around the world: Focusing on credible outcomes rather than ideal systems // Cities. Vol. 97. 2020. P. 7.
15.Erp S. van., Akkermans B., Droushout D. Ius commune casebook for the common law of Europe. Cases, Materials and Text on National, Supranational and International Property Law. Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2012. P. 579–580.
16.Fetherstonhaugh G., Sefton M., Peters E. Commonhold. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. P. 1–6.
17.Flint J., Nixon J. Governing Neighbours: Anti-social Behaviour Orders and New Forms of Regulating Conduct in the UK // Urban Studies. Vol. 43. 2006. Issue 5-6. P. 939.
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19.Habdas M. The Community of Owners Regulation of Common property in Polish Condominium Schemes // Modern Studies in Property Law / Ed. by N. Hopkins. Vol. 7. Oxford, 2013. P. 134–140.
20.Lippert R.K., Treffers S. Condominium Governance and Law in Global Urban Context. Oxon: Routledge, 2021.
21.Merwe S.D., van der. Apartment Ownership // International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law. Vol. VI: Property and Trust. Ch. 5. Tubingen, 1994. P. 71–73.
22.Merwe C.G., van der. European condominium law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. P. 636.
23.Merwe C.G., van der. Many Faces of Sectional Title: A Comparative Survey of the Inadequate Legal Treatment of Non-Residential Sectional Title Schemes // J.S. Afr. L. 2016. P. 428–446.
24.Merwe C.G. van der., Nadelmann D.W. The Swedish tenant-ownership model as an alternative to apartment ownership (sectional titles) // The Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa. Vol. 29. № 1. P. 49–60.
25.Schmidt R. Das Eigentumsrecht an Wohnungen im französischen und deutschen Recht. Inaug. Diss. München, 1963. S. 32.
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27.Živkovska R., Pržeska T. Condominium Property in North Macedonian Property Law // Regional Law Review. 2022. № 3. P. 207–227.
28.Rukovodstvo Evropejskoj e`konomicheskoj komissii OON po voprosam zhilishhny`x kondominiumov v stranax s perexodnoj e`konomikoj. S. 21–40, 51.
29.BGH, Beschl. v. 20.9.2000 – V ZB 58/99 // NJW. 2000. 3500, 3501, 3502.
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31.Postanovlenie Konstitucionnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii ot 03.04.1998 № 10-P «Po delu o proverke konstitucionnosti punktov 1, 3 i 4 stat`i 32 i punktov 2 i 3 stat`i 49 Federal`nogo zakona ot 15 iyunya 1996 goda «O tovarishhestvax sobstvennikov zhil`ya» v svyazi s zaprosom Sovetskogo rajonnogo suda goroda Omska» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_18359/92d969e26a4326c5d02fa79b8f9cf4994ee5633b/.

ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF LEGAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
Constitutional Legal Problems of Applying the «Quickening Concept» as a Criterion for the Emergence of a Limited Legal Personality Under the United States of America Law
KOSOBOKOV Andrey Lvovich
Postgraduate Student of Department of Public Law and Finance Law Disciplines of Moscow University of Finance and Law
115191, Moscow, Serpukhovsky Val, 17, Building 1, Russian Federation
Abstract: Assessment of the relevance of the «quickening concept» to modern legal realities by analyzing its implementation in practice. Using a retrospective analysis of the norms of common law, the article shows that the concept of recognizing the limited legal personality of an unborn child from the moment of its first movement, felt by a pregnant woman, was developed from the ideas of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas about the quickening of the fetus on the fortieth or ninetieth day after conception. The study uses the legal practice of Georgia and Nevada as an example to critically assess the application of the quickening in our days and substantiate its unconstitutional nature.
Keywords: common law, legal personality, fetal rights, quickening concept, equality before the law
References
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3.Austin. Aristotle, Aquinas, and the history of quickening [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/downloads/4b29b672g?locale=en.
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7.Johnson. Guilty plea made after charge of killing fetus is dropped [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://lasvegassun.com/news/2003/may/09/guilty-plea-made-after-charge-of-killing-fetus-is-/.
8.Kurjak, Stanojević, Barišić, Ferhatović, Gajović, Hrabar. Facts and doubts on the beginning of human life – scientific, legal, philosophical and religious controversies // Journal of Perinatal Medicine. 2023. № 51 (1). S. 39-50.
9.Millicovsky, Lazar. Spina bifida: role of neural tissue damage during pregnancy in producing spinal paralysis // Obstetrics & Gynecology. 1995. № 86 (2). S. 300-301.

ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF LEGAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
Issues arising from applying the lex rei sitae factor to the custody and circulation of uncertificated Securities
ISAEV Vladimir Vsevolodovich
Postgraduate Student of the Department of Сivil Law of Faculty of Law of Lomonosov Moscow State University
119234, Moscow, Leninskie Gory Str., 1, Bldg. 51, Russian Federation
Abstract: The author examines the historical context of applying this connecting factor to securities and the consequences arising from the emergence and circulation of dematerialized securities. Taking into account both Russian and foreign doctrine as well as economic realities, the author identifies shortcomings associated with applying lex rei sitae to dematerialized securities. The article has high scholarly value, as it represents one of the first attempts at a specialized comparative legal analysis of the application of the lex rei sitae factor to uncertificated securities.
Keywords: private international law, conflict of laws, lex rei sitae, lex situs, uncertificated securities
References
1.Bezborodova Yu.R. Kollizionnoe regulirovanie transgranichny`x operacij s cenny`mi bumagami v Rossii i zarubezhny`x stranax: dis. ... kand. yurid. nauk. M., 2019. S. 212.
2.Erpy`leva N.Yu., Klevchenkova M.N. Kollizionnoe i material`noe regulirovanie obrashheniya cenny`x bumag: chastnopravovy`e aspekty` // SPS-Konsul`tantPlyus.
3.Kanashevskij V.A. Kollizionnoe regulirovanie cenny`x bumag: sostoyanie i perspektivy` // Zhurnal rossijskogo prava. 2011. № 9 (177) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/kollizionnoe-regulirovanie-tsennyh-bumag-sostoyanie-i-perspektivy.
4.Kommentarij k razdelu VI Mezhdunarodnoe chastnoe pravo chasti tret`ej Grazhdanskogo kodeksa Rossijskoj Federacii (postatejny`j). M.: Statut, 2021. S. 665.
5.Nikiforov A.Yu. Bezdokumentarny`e cenny`e bumagi // SPS-Konsul`tantPlyus.
6.Podkopalov I.A. Nekotory`e aspekty` pravovogo regulirovaniya transgranichnogo oborota cenny`x bumag, uchity`vaemy`x cherez posrednika // SPS-Konsul`tantPlyus.
7.Finansovy`j slovar`. Associaciya rossijskix bankov [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://arb.ru/b2c/dictionary/.
8.Gridel A., D’Avout L. Financial Markets and Instruments in Private International Law. Intersentia, 2025. P. 968.
9.Ooi M.S. Shares and other Securities in the Conflict of Laws. Oxford [etc.]: Oxford University Press, 2003. XXXVI, P. 358.
10.Paech P. Securities, intermediation and the blockchain: an inevitable choice between liquidity and legal certainty? [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/67870/.
11.Cuniberti G. Rethinking conflit mobile: applying the law of comi to rights in rem // Private International Law on Rights in rem in the European Union. Madrid, 2024. P. 477–490 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://orbilu.uni.lu/bitstream/10993/62204/1/405-capitulo-20.pdf.

POLICY AND ECONOMY OF EURASIA
Unified National Marking System «Chestny Znak» as an Administrative and Organizational Method of Ensuring the Security of Entrepreneurship or Destruction of its Small and Medium Segments
LYANNAY Gleb Gennadievich
Candidate of Law, Associate Professor, Associate Professor of the Department of Theory and History of State and Law of Baikal State University
664003, Irkutsk, Lenin Str., 11, Block 4, Russian Federation
Abstract: This article examines the positive and negative aspects of the introduction and operation of automated electronic product tracking information systems. The focus is on the work of small and medium-sized businesses with one of the major information systems – «Chestny Znak». Against the generally positive backdrop of supporters of mandatory product labeling and tracking information systems, the author draws attention to the economic, organizational, and technical challenges faced by small and medium-sized businesses related to the need to register products sold in the system and master the technical aspects.
Keywords: small and medium businesses, administrative measures, electronic control, product identification, digital labeling
References
1.Gladchenko V.A., Mixajlova S.A. Osobennosti informacionno-texnicheskogo vzaimodejstviya edinoj nacional`noj sistemy` cifrovoj markirovki i proslezhivaemosti tovarov «chestny`j znak» i edinoj avtomatizirovannoj informacionnoj sistemy` tamozhenny`x organov pri sovershenii tamozhenny`x operacij, svyazanny`x s vy`puskom vvozimoj markiruemoj produkcii // Evrazijskij Soyuz Ucheny`x. E`konomicheskie nauki. 2020. № 76 (4). S. 10–17.
2.Rogovaya T.P. Vliyanie sistemy` «Chestny`j znak» na regulirovanie predprinimatel`skoj deyatel`nosti // Molodoj ucheny`j. 2021. № 47 (389). S. 294–296. [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://moluch.ru/archive/389/85704.
3.Koncedalov R.A. Primenenie edinoj nacional`noj sistemy` cifrovoj markirovki i proslezhivaniya tovarov «chestny`j znak» // Sankt-Peterburgskij nauchny`j vestnik. 2021. № 1 (10). [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: http://spbvestniknauka.esrae.ru/ru/11–72.
4.Lyannoj G.G. Administrativno-pravovy`e mery`, napravlenny`e na snizhenie nagruzki na biznes, kak mexanizm zashhity` predprinimatelej // Vestnik UYuI. 2023. № 2 (100). [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/administrativno-pravovye-mery-napravlennye-na-snizhenie-nagruzki-na-biznes-kak-mehanizm-zaschity-predprinimateley.
5.Lyannoj G.G. Administrativny`e bar`ery`, prepyatstvuyushhie razvitiyu malogo i srednego predprinimatel`stva // Obshhestvo i pravo. 2024. № 1 (87). [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/administrativnye-bariery-prepyatstvuyuschie-razvitiyu-malogo-i-srednego-predprinimatelstva.
6.Vaxitova E`.I. Problemy` cifrovoj markirovki // Repozitorij TyumGU. 2025. [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL:
https://elib.utmn.ru/jspui/bitstream/ru-tsu/37727/1/978-5-400-01846-6_2025_140_146.pdf.
7.Biznes nazval 23 prichiny` otsrochit` markirovku «Chestny`j znak» – obrashhenie k Vladimiru Putinu cherez redakciyu ASP News // ASP Avtomatizaciya biznes-processov. [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://aoasp.ru.
8.Individual`ny`j predprinimatel`. Bankrotstva v Rossii // Tadviser. Gosudarstvo. Biznes. Texnologii. 2025. [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/.

POLICY AND ECONOMY OF EURASIA
Evolution of Russian Electoral Legislation: From Regional Specificity to Federal Regulation (2000–2025)
BOTASHEVA Albina Khadzhi-Dautovna
Postgraduate Student of Karachaevo-Cherkessk Branch of the Moscow Financial-Industrial University «Synergy»
369000, Cherkessk, Lenina Ave, 83, Russian Federation
Abstract: The article is devoted to a comprehensive analysis of the transformation of the electoral legislation of the Russian Federation in the period from 2000 to 2025. The purpose of the study is to identify the patterns and trends in the development of electoral regulation, including the correlation between federal unification and regional specificity. The methodological basis includes historical legal, comparative legal, formal legal and institutional methods. The key stages of reforming electoral legislation are considered: the period of regional variability (2000–2003), the stage of centralization and unification (2004–2011), the phase of partial liberalization (2012–2019), and the modern period of constitutional renewal (2020–2025). The significance of the work lies in systematizing legislative changes and in substantiating the conclusion that electoral legislation serves not only as a technical regulator of electoral procedures, but also as an instrument for restructuring the balance between the federal center and the subjects of the federation.
Keywords: electoral legislation, electoral system, federalism, regional regulation, centralization, elections, electoral law, subjects of the Russian Federation
References
1.Marchenko M.N. Teoriya gosudarstva i prava. E`lementarny`j kurs: uchebnoe posobie. 3-e izd., dop. M.: Norma, INFRA-M, 2025. [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://znanium.ru/catalog/product/2124764.
2.Avak`yan S.A. Konstitucionnoe pravo Rossii. Uchebny`j kurs: Tom 2. 6-e izd., pererab. i dop. M.: Norma, INFRA-M, 2020. [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://znanium.com/catalog/product/1191317.
3.Lyubarev A.E. Izbiratel`ny`e sistemy` i rossijskoe e`lektoral`noe zakonodatel`stvo // Polis. Politicheskie issledovaniya. 2023. № 2. S. 42–165 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.booksite.ru/election/data/lubarev.pdf?ysclid=mltda2j470286956834.
4.Popov A., Akimenko M., Shvachkina L. et al. Ethical dimension of radical environmentalism: a study of biocentric activism // International Journal of Ecosystems and Ecology Science. 2025. Vol. 15. No. 4. P. 325–332.
5.Sartori G. Comparative Constitutional Engineering: An Inquiry into Structures, Incentives and Outcomes. 2nd ed. New York: NYU Press, 1997.
6.Ivanchenko A.V., Lyubarev A.E. Rossijskie vy`bory` ot perestrojki do suverennoj demokratii. M.: Aspekt Press, 2007. [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://rusneb.ru/catalog/002744_000053_RU___%D0%93%D0%9F%D0%9D%D0%A2%D0%91+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8___KNB_IBIS___63.3%282%29___%D0%9823-062280/.
7.Federal`ny`j zakon ot 12.06.2002 № 67-FZ «Ob osnovny`x garantiyax izbiratel`ny`x prav i prava na uchastie v referendume grazhdan Rossijskoj Federacii» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_37119/?ysclid=mltdbe3cwo394889542.
8.Federal`ny`j zakon ot 11.12.2004 № 159-FZ «O vnesenii izmenenij v Federal`ny`j zakon Ob obshhix principax organizacii zakonodatel`ny`x (predstavitel`ny`x) i ispolnitel`ny`x organov gosudarstvennoj vlasti sub``ektov Rossijskoj Federacii i v Federal`ny`j zakon Ob osnovny`x garantiyax izbiratel`ny`x prav i prava na uchastie v referendume grazhdan Rossijskoj Federacii» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_50659/?ysclid=mltdbxwyic929048873.
9.Golosov G.V. Sravnitel`naya politologiya: uchebnik. 4-e izd., pererab. i dop. SPb.: Izdatel`stvo Evropejskogo universiteta v Sankt-Peterburge, 2018. [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://search.rsl.ru/ru/record/01009895540?ysclid=mltdd9j2g3379333099.
10.Federal`ny`j zakon ot 02.05.2012 № 40-FZ «O vnesenii izmenenij v Federal`ny`j zakon Ob obshhix principax organizacii zakonodatel`ny`x (predstavitel`ny`x) i ispolnitel`ny`x organov gosudarstvennoj vlasti sub``ektov Rossijskoj Federacii i Federal`ny`j zakon Ob osnovny`x garantiyax izbiratel`ny`x prav i prava na uchastie v referendume grazhdan Rossijskoj Federacii» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_129119/?ysclid=mltddptd5c966460648.
11.Dresvyanin D.A. Municipal`ny`j fil`tr: problemy` i praktika primeneniya // Ural`skij zhurnal pravovy`x issledovanij. 2020. № 4 (11) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/munitsipalnyy-filtr-problemy-i-praktika-primeneniya.
12.Konstituciya Rossijskoj Federacii (prinyata vsenarodny`m golosovaniem 12.12.1993 s izmeneniyami, odobrenny`mi v xode obshherossijskogo golosovaniya 01.07.2020) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_28399/?ysclid=mltdflvco2940907304.
13.Chirkin V.E. O proporcional`noj izbiratel`noj sisteme s preferencial`ny`m votumom // Zhurnal rossijskogo prava. 2013. № 6 (198) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/o-proportsionalnoy-izbiratelnoy-sisteme-s-preferentsialnym-votumom.
14.Xabrieva T.Ya. Konstitucionnaya reforma v Rossii v koordinatax universal`nogo i nacional`nogo // Zhurnal zarubezhnogo zakonodatel`stva i sravnitel`nogo pravovedeniya. 2021. № 1 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/konstitutsionnaya-reforma-v-rossii-v-koordinatah-universalnogo-i-natsionalnogo.
15.Federal`ny`j zakon ot 21.12.2021 № 414-FZ «Ob obshhix principax organizacii publichnoj vlasti v sub``ektax Rossijskoj Federacii» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_404070/?ysclid=mltdiddn9010163078.

POLICY AND ECONOMY OF EURASIA
The Russian Model of Public Authority: a Synthesis of Centralism and Legal Formalism
SURKHAYKHANOV Shamil Saygidalamovich
Postgraduate Student of Karachaevo-Cherkessk Branch of the Moscow Financial-Industrial University «Synergy»
369000, Cherkessk, Lenina Ave, 83, Russian Federation
Abstract: The article examines the specificity of the Russian model of public authority formed as a result of the 2020 constitutional amendments and subsequent development of legislation on the unified system of public authority. The conclusion is drawn that legal formalism in this model performs not a restrictive but a legitimizing function, ensuring institutional stability of centralized governance. The scientific novelty consists in the development of the concept of «legitimizing formalism» as a theoretical-legal category for describing hybrid models of public authority.
Keywords: public authority, centralization, legal formalism, hybrid model, unified system of public authority, constitutional reform, theory of state, federalism, legitimation, systems theory
References
1.Kas`yanenko M.A. O pravovy`x i obshhegrazhdanskix mexanizmax protivodejstviya e`tnicheskim konfliktam // Gosudarstvennaya vlast` i mestnoe samoupravlenie. 2010. № 3. S. 6-8.
2.Konstituciya Rossijskoj Federacii (prinyata vsenarodny`m golosovaniem 12.12.1993 s izmeneniyami, odobrenny`mi v xode obshherossijskogo golosovaniya 01.07.2020).
3.Castells M. The Rise of the Network Society. 2nd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
4.Luhmann N. Law as a Social System. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
5.Avak`yan S.A. Konstitucionnaya reforma 2020 i rossijskij parlamentarizm: real`nost`, resheniya, ozhidaniya // Moskovskij yuridicheskij zhurnal. 2020. № 3.
6.Xabrieva T.Ya. Konstitucionnaya reforma v Rossii v koordinatax universal`nogo i nacional`nogo // Zhurnal zarubezhnogo zakonodatel`stva i sravnitel`nogo pravovedeniya. 2021. № 1.
7.Weber M. Economy and Society. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978.
8.Federal`ny`j zakon ot 27.05.2003 № 58-FZ «O sisteme gosudarstvennoj sluzhby` Rossijskoj Federacii» (poslednyaya redakciya).
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10.Chirkin V.E. Sovremennoe gosudarstvo. M.: Norma, 2019.
11.Kozlova E.I. Federalizm v Rossii: mezhdu konstitucionnoj model`yu i real`noj praktikoj // Pravo i politika. 2022. № 3. S. 82–95.
12.Nary`shkin S.E. Administrativnaya reforma: pervy`e shagi i perspektivy` // Voprosy` gosudarstvennogo i municipal`nogo upravleniya. 2007. № 1.
13.Ministerstvo finansov Rossijskoj Federacii. Otchyot ob ispolnenii konsolidirovanny`x byudzhetov sub``ektov Rossijskoj Federacii za 2023 god [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://minfin.gov.ru/.
14.Gel`man V.Ya. Avtoritarnaya modernizaciya v Rossii – missiya nevy`polnima? // Mir Rossii. Sociologiya. E`tnologiya. 2017. № 2.
15.Barzilova I.S. Formirovanie gorizontal`noj i vertikal`noj struktur rossijskogo zakonodatel`stva v usloviyax razvitiya cifrovy`x texnologij // Social`no-politicheskie nauki. 2020. № 2.
16.Ginsburg T., Simpser A. Authoritarian Constitutionalism // Constitutions in Authoritarian Regimes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. P. 305–320.

POLICY AND ECONOMY OF EURASIA
Ensuring a Balance of Interests Between Debtors and Creditors When Challenging Transactions in Bankruptcy Proceedings
EDILOV Magomed-Salekh Aslanovich
The Lawyer of «Schekin & Partners» LLC
109012, Moscow, Nikolskaya Str., Building 10, Office 4/7, Russian Federation
Abstract: This article examines the issue of balancing the interests of debtors and creditors when challenging transactions in bankruptcy proceedings. The author analyzes the concept of a balance of interests, noting that in the bankruptcy context, it is not equivalent to civil-law equality but rather implies proportional satisfaction of creditors’ claims, taking into account the objectives of the procedure. The primary focus is on the mechanisms for challenging transactions as a tool for ensuring a balance of interests. Objective and subjective approaches to determining this balance are considered, including an analysis of the retrospective deadlines for challenging transactions and their role in protecting the interests of the parties. Particular attention is paid to the problems arising when challenging transactions with inactive and liquidated counterparties, as well as the possibilities of succession in such cases. The study proposes specific legislative amendments aimed at improving the mechanisms for challenging transactions. In particular, the need to enshrine in Article 2 of the Bankruptcy Law a definition of the balance of interests, clarify the criteria for challenging transactions (including transactions within the ordinary course of business), redistribute the burden of proof, and establish special rules for transactions with liquidated counterparties is substantiated.
The practical significance of the work lies in the proposals for improving legislation that will reduce abuse, ensure legal certainty, and achieve a fair balance of interests for all participants in bankruptcy proceedings.
Keywords: bankruptcy, insolvency, invalid transactions, balance of interests, creditor, debtor, challenging transactions
References
1.Shuvalov I.I. Institut bankrotstva i ego rol` v period social`no-e`konomicheskogo krizisa // Zhurnal rossijskogo prava. 2021. № 12. S. 106.
2.Bankrotstvo vy`birayut dolzhniki // Kommersant``. 2026. 3 marta [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/8377586.
3.Tkachev V.N. Konkursnoe pravo: pravovoe regulirovanie nesostoyatel`nosti (bankrotstva) v Rossii i zarubezhny`x stranax. M.: YuNITI-DANA, 2022. S. 46.
4.Bankrotstvo v Rossii. Statisticheskij byulleten` Fedresursa. Itogi 2025 goda // Fedresurs [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://clck.ru/3SGpsQ.
5.Bely`x V.S. Pravovoe regulirovanie predprinima-tel`skoj deyatel`nosti v Rossii: monografiya. M.: Prospekt, 2009. S. 15.
6.Dal` V.I. Tolkovy`j slovar` zhivogo velikorusskogo yazy`ka. V 4 t. T. 1. M.: Obshhestvo lyubitelej rossijskoj slovesnosti, 1863. S. 45.
7.My`l`nikov Yu.V. Vzaimosvyaz` regional`nogo e`konomicheskogo razvitiya i arbitrazhnogo upravleniya // Akademiya prava i upravleniya. 2024. № 81. S. 161.
8.Belikova K.M. O konkursnom kontrole v kontekste tendencij razvitiya nesostoyatel`nosti (bankrotstva) predpriyatij // Probely` v rossijskom zakonodatel`stve. 2025. T. 18. № 4. S. 87.
9.Postanovlenie Konstitucionnogo Suda RF ot 19 dekabrya 2005 g. № 12-P «Po delu o proverke konstitucionnosti abzacza vos`mogo punkta 1 stat`i 20 Federal`nogo zakona «O nesostoyatel`nosti (bankrotstve)» v svyazi s zhaloboj grazhdanina A.G. Mezhenceva» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: http://pravo.gov.ru.
10.Lagunova E.A. Balans interesov kreditorov i sem`i dolzhnika v delax o bankrotstve grazhdan // Prolog: zhurnal o prave. 2021. № 3 (31). S. 58.
11.Shuvalov I.I. Institut bankrotstva i ego rol` v period social`no-e`konomicheskogo krizisa // Zhurnal rossijskogo prava. 2021. T. 25. № 12. S. 100.
12.Pis`mo Ministerstva e`konomicheskogo razvitiya Rossijskoj Federacii ot 3 noyabrya 2011 g. № D06-5506.
13.Shumkova A.V. Osparivanie sdelok dolzhnika kak mexanizm sudebnoj zashhity` prav i zakonny`x interesov kreditorov: problemy` i puti ix resheniya // Rossiya v XXI veke: strategiya i taktika social`no-e`konomicheskix, politicheskix i pravovy`x reform. 2022. S. 634.
14.Kalugin V.Yu. Material`no-pravovy`e i processu-al`ny`e aspekty` zashhity` ot konkursnogo osparivaniya: dis. … kand. yurid. nauk. Ekaterinburg, 2024. S. 45.
15.Opredelenie Verxovnogo Suda RF ot 16.11.2020 go-da № 307-E`S20-11632 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://kad.arbitr.ru.
16.Postanovlenie Plenuma VAS RF ot 23.12.2010 № 63 «O nekotory`x voprosax, svyazanny`x s primeneniem glavy` III.1 Federal`nogo zakona «O nesostoyatel`nosti (bankrotstve)» // SPS «Konsul`tant Plyus».
17.Postanovlenie AS Volgo-Vyatskogo okruga ot 24.02.2021 goda po delu № A28-11583/2017 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://kad.arbitr.ru.

Index

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