Translator
Download
Content of journals
HISTORICAL EXPERIENCE
Legal Features of Collecting Yasak in the Context of the Tax Activities of the State in the Far East During the First and Second Kamchatka ExpeditionsKRYUCHKOV Daniil VladimirovichPostgraduate Student of the Department of History of State and Law of Lomonosov Moscow State University119991, Moscow, Leninskie Gory, 1, building 13 (4th academic building), room 521 A, Russian FederationAbstract: The article examines, on the basis of archival documents from the First and Second Kamchatka expeditions as well as normative acts of the 18th century, the role of yasak (a fur tribute) as a legal instrument for extending and maintaining the imperial authority of the Russian Empire over the Far East. Special attention is given to the interconnection between the state’s fiscal activities and expeditionary policies. The article concludes that yasak both stimulated Russia’s territorial expansion and created a legal framework for controlling new lands, while its collection often involved serious violations, leading to migrations and requiring central government intervention.Keywords: yasak, tax system, Second Kamchatka Expedition, Russian Empire, tax collection abuse
The Correct Identification of the Material Plaintiff in Cases of Lawsuits by ProsecutorsSULTANOV Aydar RustemovichCandidate of Law, Advocate, Honored Lawyer of the Republic of Tatarstan, Head of Representative Office «Рeреliaev group» in Tatarstan125047, Moscow, 3rd Tverskaya-Yamskaya St., 39, building 1, Russian FederationAbstract: This article examines the problem of the correct identification of the material plaintiff using specific examples, the need to involve a material plaintiff, the difference between the institution of a material plaintiff and a co-plaintiff. The relevance of the study is caused by an increase in lawsuits filed by prosecutors, as well as an increase in lawsuits in which the prosecutor does not specify the material plaintiff. According to the author, the involvement of a proper material plaintiff should contribute to a more correct and objective resolution of the case.Keywords: material plaintiff, party to the dispute, prosecutor, co-plaintiff, civil procedure
From Content Regulation to Search Regulation: Article 13.53 of the Russian Code of Administrative Offences and Advertising of Access ToolsSPARTAK Sergey AndreevichCandidate of Political Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Philosophy of Language and Communication of the Faculty of Philosophy of Lomonosov Moscow State University119991, Moscow, Lomonosovsky Prospekt, 27-4, Russian FederationAbstract: The purpose of the study is to determine the legal nature of Article 13.53 of the Russian Code of Administrative Offences, the prohibition on advertising software and hardware tools for accessing restricted resources, and their significance for legal practice. Formal legal, systemic and functional methods were used together with an analysis of the first published enforcement materials. The article argues that the expression «criminalisation of search» is legally inaccurate: the legislature established administrative liability for a cumulative sequence comprising intentional searching, prior knowledge that a specific material is extremist, and actual access to it. The use of a virtual private network is an optional method, not an independent ground of liability. A standard of digital proof is proposed to prevent technical traces from being equated with established guilt. The article substantiates a functional professional exception for bona fide scientific, journalistic, expert, legal, legislative and law-enforcement activities. The proposed safeguards strengthen the evidentiary quality and legitimacy of sovereign regulation without weakening state policy against extremism.Keywords: digital sovereignty, extremist materials, Article 13.53 of the Russian Code of Administrative Offences, administrative liability, intent, prior knowledge, digital evidence, advertising, virtual private network, legal profession, right to information
Civil Law Limitations on the Principle of Freedom of Contract and the Abuse of Freedom of ContractRAKHMATULLAEV Alexey IlyichPostgraduate Student of the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Leading Expert of the Department of Public Procurement Appeals of the Moscow Office of the Federal Antimonopoly Service119571, Moscow, Vernadsky Prospekt, house 82, building 1, Russian FederationBASTRIKOV Alexander AlbertovichCandidate of Law, Head of the Legal Department, «Global Service Group Academy» LLC105005, Moscow, Radio Str., 24, building 1, room XV, floor 8, room 1, office 802/11, Russian FederationAbstract: The purpose of this study is to determine how modern civil law combines freedom of contract with necessary limitations that protect the interests of parties and society as a whole. The study demonstrates that contractual autonomy cannot be absolute but requires clear boundaries. The authors compare two models of limitation: the first is based on mandatory norms, where the legislator prohibits certain conditions in advance (ex ante-regulation), while the second is based on judicial review through evaluative concepts such as good faith and fairness (ex post-regulation). The Russian Civil Code is dominated by mandatory norms (approximately 1,600 versus 200 dispositive ones), which significantly narrows the scope for contractual freedom while simultaneously providing protection against abuse. Dispositive norms act as «default» rules that the parties can modify by agreement. When a dispute arises, courts apply evaluative criteria – good faith, reasonableness, and fairness – to review the legality of contractual terms ex post. Abuse of freedom of contract is prevented through prohibitions on circumvention, chicanery, and anticompetitive behavior. Thus, effective regulation requires a balance between prior legislative injunctions and flexible judicial review.Keywords: freedom of contract, mandatory rules, dispositive rules, limitations on contractual autonomy, abuse of rights, good faith, ex ante regulation, ex post regulation, judicial review of contracts
Procedure for interaction between the enforcement officer and the securities register holder in enforcement proceedingsSARGISYAN Artem PavlovichAdvocate, Postgraduate Student of the Department of Civil Procedure, Public Law Activities and Organization of Bailiff Services of the All-Russian State University of Justice (RPA of the Ministry of Justice of Russia)117638, Moscow, Azovskaya str., 2, building 1, Russian FederationAbstract: The author examines the legal nature of the registrar as a specialized subject of enforcement proceedings, identifies the features of the procedural procedure for seizing registered and uncertified securities, analyzes the mechanism of electronic interaction through the system of interdepartmental electronic interaction. Based on the analysis of judicial practice and regulatory regulation, proposals were formulated to improve legal regulation, including the unification of interaction procedures, the establishment of the responsibility of registrars for non-compliance with decisions and the creation of a unified register of securities encumbrances.Keywords: enforcement proceedings, bailiff, holder of the securities register, registrar, seizure of securities, uncertified securities
Legal Nature of the Collective Exercise and Protection of Utilitarian and Hybrid Digital RightsMARKAROV Mikhail DavidovichPostgraduate Student of Patrice Lumumba Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, Head of the Investigative Department for the city of Solnechnogorsk of the Main Investigative Directorate of the Investigative Committee of the Russian Federation for the Moscow Region117198, Moscow, Miklukho-Maklaya Street, 6, Russian FederationAbstract: The article investigates the legal nature of the collective exercise and protection of utilitarian and hybrid digital rights. It examines the correlation of the institutions of a representative and a general meeting of digital rights holders, provided for by Federal Law No. 282-FZ of August 04, 2026 «On Digital Currencies and Digital Rights», with the general provisions on representation, decisions of meetings, and contractual models of actions in another’s interest. The subsidiary application of Chapter 9.1 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation to the decisions of the meeting of digital rights holders is substantiated, and the significance of legal qualification for filling regulatory gaps is determined. Clarifications of the limits of collective disposal of claims and the duties of a representative are proposed.Keywords: utilitarian digital rights, hybrid digital rights, civil law community, decisions of meetings, representation, trust management, analogy of law, protection of rights
Specific Aspects of Classifying Objects as Special Technical Equipment and Devices in the Context of Forensic Trace ExaminationSHOGENOV Alan AslanovichPostgraduate Student of the Department of Criminal and Public Law of Moscow University «Synergy»115230, Moscow, 7 Khlebozavodskii Proezd, bldg. 10, Russian FederationAbstract: This article examines the possibility of classifying devices used for the unauthorized opening of security locks as special technical devices and tools in the context of forensic trace examination. A classification of objects used for unauthorized tampering into specific categories is proposed, and the feasibility of manufacturing such devices using modern technologies is explored.Keywords: criminalistics, forensic examination, forensic trace examination, mechanoscopy, special technical means, methods of expert research
Online dispute resolution on marketplaces within the system of civil law protection of consumer rightsGIRFANOV Ilnaz IsrafilovichPostgraduate Student of the University of Management «TISBI»420012, Kazan, Mushtari Str. 13, Russian FederationAbstract: The article is devoted to the study of the legal nature of the institution of online dispute resolution arising between consumers and other participants in transactions on marketplaces, including the marketplace itself. The author focuses on the theoretical and methodological aspects of the issues under study, and therefore examines online dispute resolution from various perspectives: as a legal institution, as a legal relationship, and as a method of protecting rights. Based on the study, the author concludes that the current mechanism of online dispute resolution is at odds with the foundations of Russian civil law, in particular, it limits consumers’ autonomy, the equality of participants in civil law relations, and the freedom of contract.Keywords: online dispute resolution, consumer protection, marketplace, methods of civil law protection, platform law
Judicial Counter-Reform Versus Procedural Safeguards: an Analysis of Draft Law No. 1264907-8RAGULIN Andrey ViktorovichDoctor of Law, Associate Professor, Advocate of the Moscow Chamber of Advocates, Head of the Centre for the Study of the Organization and Operation of the Advocacy of the Eurasian Scientific Research Institute of Problems of Law, Editor-in-Chief of the «Eurasian Advocacy» Journal450006, Ufa, Lenina Str., 102, office 24, Russian FederationAbstract: The article provides a comprehensive legal analysis of Draft Federal Law No. 1264907-8, which proposes extensive amendments to civil, commercial, and administrative procedure. It examines the expansion of single-judge and written proceedings, changes to the rules governing the composition of courts, the unification of the functions of judicial assistants and court clerks, the optional nature of preliminary hearings, higher monetary thresholds for simplified and order proceedings, and the abolition of commercial court assessors. The study finds that the stated objectives of reducing judicial workload and accelerating proceedings are not supported by sufficient calculations, while the proposed measures may weaken the guarantees of a tribunal established by law, public hearings, adversarial proceedings, equality of arms, and judicial independence. Particular attention is paid to the draft law’s compatibility with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and Article 14 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The article concludes that the draft law requires substantial revision and concrete compensatory procedural safeguards.Keywords: judicial reform, access to justice, procedural economy, single-judge proceedings, collegial adjudication, written proceedings, preliminary hearing, commercial court assessors, judicial independence, International Co-venant on Civil and Political Rights
The Phenomenon of Shrinkflation in Criminal Law: the Correspondence of Cost-Based Criteria for Differentiating Liability to the Principles of Equality and JusticeBULYCHEV Evgeny NikolaevichCandidate of Law, Associate Professor, Associate Professor of the Department of Constitutional and Administrative Law of the Bashkir Academy of Public Administration and Management under the Head of the Republic of Bashkortostan450008, Ufa, Z. Validi Str., 40, Russian FederationAbstract: The article substantiates that, in the context of inflationary processes, fixed absolute threshold values are devalued, which leads to an extra-legislative tightening of criminal liability and a change in the category of crimes without changing the text of the law. The author introduces the concept of «shrinkflation of criminal liability measures (shrinkflation of sanctions)» into scientific discourse as a situation in which the actual value of the subject of a crime or the damage is changed while the previous threshold values and liability measures remain unchanged, which violates constitutional principles. Two methods for solving the problem are proposed: a systematic review of absolute values and linking to a conditional value (for example, the minimum wage). The preference for the second approach is justified, taking into account the positive experience of CIS countries.Keywords: shrinkflation of criminal liability measures, shrinkflation of sanctions, bribe, significant amount, large amount, especially large amount, inflation, principle of equality, principle of justice, minimum wage, corruption crimes, criminal liability
Specifics of Regulating Criminal Liability for Falsification of Operational-Search Activity Results: a Comparative AnalysisNAMNYASEVA Victoriya VyacheslavovnaСandidate of Law, Associate Professor, Professor of the Criminal Law Department of the Volgograd Academy of the Internal Affairs Ministry of Russia400075, Volgograd, str. Historicheskaya, 130, Russian FederationAbstract: The article analyzes statistical data on the application of the legal provision establishing criminal liability for the falsification of operational-search activity results. The effectiveness of countering this act has been noted as insufficient. With a view to improving national legislation, certain aspects of foreign legislative experience regarding the drafting of criminal law provisions relevant to the subject of this study have been examined. The criminal law measures employed by various states, specifically those related to defining the constitutive and qualifying elements of the crime of falsifying the results of operational-search activities, have been highlighted as positive practices.Keywords: legislative construction, norm of criminal law, falsification, results of operational-search activities, foreign experience, differentiation of criminal liability
Digital Traces of Commercial Bribery in the Corporate Environment: Forensic Classification and Evidentiary SignificanceKAMINSKY Aleksander AlekseevichPostgraduate Student of the Faculty of Law of the Lomonosov Moscow State University119991, Moscow, Leninskie Gory, Building 1, Russian FederationAbstract: This article examines the digital traces of commercial bribery in the corporate environment amid the digitalization of economic activity. It is argued that modern commercial bribery leaves evidentiary information not only in traditional physical and documentary sources, but also in corporate email, instant messaging, electronic document management systems, banking applications, event logs, cloud storage, mobile devices, and, in some cases, in digital currency infrastructure. A forensic classification of digital traces of commercial bribery is proposed based on their source and evidentiary function, and the specifics of their detection, recording, seizure, and interpretation are analyzed, taking into account the requirements of criminal procedure law and the need for specialized knowledge. It is concluded that digital traces should be considered a systemically important element of the modern trace picture of commercial bribery.Keywords: commercial bribery, digital traces, corporate environment, forensic characteristics, electronic evidence, digital forensics, special knowledge, anti-corruption compliance
European Court of Human Rights and Private International LawNOVRUZOVA Saadat Samed kiziSenior Lecturer of Law Department of the Khazar UniversityAZ1096, Baku, Mehseti Ganjavi Str., 41, Azerbaijan RepublicAbstract: One consequence of the expanding activity of the European Court of Human Rights (hereinafter the «EСtHR») is that its interaction with private international law (hereinafter «PIL») is taking on particular significance. PIL governs civil, labor, family, property, and other private-law relationships that contain a foreign element. In this field, national and international courts address issues such as international jurisdiction, applicable law, the recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments, family relations, international adoption, and other similar matters. A number of human rights relevant to the subject matter of PIL are directly enshrined in the articles of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (hereinafter the «Convention»). Conversely, applicants frequently invoke a wide range of PIL issues in their complaints, requiring the ECtHR to articulate its position regarding these norms. This article examines the nature of the interaction between the ECtHR’s activities and PIL through an analysis of relevant case law that has defined the Court’s stance on PIL rules.Keywords: European Court, human rights, convention, private international law, precedentСписок источников/References:
Decomposition of the Forensic Examination Process Into Components According to the Model: Purpose, Object, Subject, TasksESKOV Aleksandr AleksandrovichForensic Expert, employee of LLC «Cadastral Valuation and Expertise»628601, Nizhnevartovsk, Khanty-Mansiyskaya St., 2, building 1, office 213, Russian FederationMOSHKINA Irina ViktorovnaForensic Expert, employee of LLC «Cadastral Valuation and Expertise»628601, Nizhnevartovsk, Khanty-Mansiyskaya St., 2, building 1, office 213, Russian FederationAbstract: A four-level structural model of forensic examination – «goal → object → subject → tasks» – is proposed, grounded in Aristotle’s teleology, Popper’s falsifiability, and Hempel’s scheme. The examination purpose is defined as facilitating justice through reliable factual data using specialised knowledge. The model accounts for adversarial rights of the parties and identifies a gap in Russian law regarding scientific admissibility, benchmarked against Daubert. Six «noise» categories – polysemy, cognitive bias, illocutionary misalignment, and others – are mapped to procedural consequences. The model is a coherence-verification tool and a foundation for sector-specific checklists.Keywords: forensic examination, structural-logical model, decomposition of expert examination, purpose of forensic examination, forensic examination noise, coherence of expert report, scientific admissibility of evidence, cognitive bias in expert testimony, procedural consequences of expert report defects, teleology of expert activity, falsifiability of expert knowledge
The Concept of Victim’s Consent in Russian Civil Law: Legal Qualification and the Limits of ConsentSUNAGATULLIN Stanislav RuslanovichPostgraduate Student of the Department of Civil Law of the Faculty of Law of Lomonosov Moscow State University 119991, Moscow, Leninskie Gory, 1, bldg. 13, Russian FederationAbstract: The article argues that consent is an act of a transactional nature, while the rules governing legal transactions do not automatically apply to it in their entirety. It is demonstrated that consent does not, as a rule, create a subjective right to cause harm, but confers a legal possibility to perform an act that would otherwise constitute a violation of the victim’s right. Particular attention is paid to consent concerning personal non-property rights. The article argues that the criterion of the moral principles of society is insufficient and proposes determining the objective limits of consent with regard to the rights of third parties, public interests and, in exceptional cases, the interests of the victim, on the basis of the constitutional principle of proportionality.Keywords: victim’s consent, legal fact, legal transaction, personal non-property rights, principle of proportionality
The Right to Verifiable VisibilitySPARTAK Sergey AndreevichCandidate of Political Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Philosophy of Language and Communication of the Faculty of Philosophy of Lomonosov Moscow State University119991, Moscow, Lomonosovsky Prospekt, 27-4, Russian FederationAbstract: The article introduces the category of the «right to verifiable visibility» not as a right to popularity, but as a set of procedural guarantees enabling the reconstruction of the origin of socially significant digital reach and the mechanism governing access to a digital service. Using formal legal, comparative legal, and practice-oriented methods, the article examines the 2024 Romanian election campaign, Russian law, French proceedings concerning X and Grok, Chinese regulation of algorithms, and restrictions on the distribution of MAX and VK applications. It distinguishes formal availability, actual visibility, and the evidentiary verifiability of reach. A special evidentiary regime for major platforms during election periods and an infrastructure continuity regime for socially significant applications are proposed. Digital sovereignty is defined as the capacity to preserve, verify, reproduce, and legally remedy a platform-mediated process.Keywords: digital sovereignty, algorithmic visibility, recommender systems, platform power, election law, Digital Services Act, app stores, digital gatekeepers, evidentiary access, infrastructure continuity
The Constitutional and Legal Foundations of the State Policy of the Russian Federation in the Field of Protection of the Institution of the Family and Family ValuesARZUMANOVA Silva MikhailovnaCandidate of Law, Associate Professor, Department of Public Law and Private Law Disciplines, Institute of Jurisprudence and Engineering of Pyatigorsk State University357532, Pyatigorsk, Kalinin Str., 9, Russian FederationRYABOVA Tatiana VladimirovnaCandidate of Law, Senior Lecturer, Department of Public Law and Private Law Disciplines, Institute of Jurisprudence and Engineering of Pyatigorsk State University357532, Pyatigorsk, Kalinin Str., 9, Russian FederationAbstract: The article examines the main directions of state policy in the field of development and preservation of the institution of the family and family values. Special attention is paid to the definition of the institution of the family and its significance at the present time, as well as an analysis of the constitutional and legal regulation and protection of family values. It is established that, taking into account the peculiarities of various subjects of the Russian Federation, the legal regulation of the institution of the family is fixed in different ways, but has the same legal protection. Attention is focused on the implementation of the state policy of the Russian Federation to preserve the institution of the family and family values. The main problems in the implementation of state policy have been identified and the main directions for achieving the objectives of strengthening the authority of the family and family values have been identified.Keywords: Constitution of the Russian Federation, family, family values, the institution of the family, state policy, the state, society, state support, protection of family values
Comparative Analysis of the Legal Regulation of Relations Between Digital Platforms and Entrepreneurs in the Russian Federation and the European UnionDEMIDOV Leon IgorevichIndependent Researcher, Legal Counsel of the National Research University ITMO197101, St. Petersburg, Kronverksky Ave., 49, letter A, Russian FederationAbstract: The article provides a comparative legal analysis of the regulation of relations between digital platforms and professional users in the Russian Federation and the European Union. It substantiates the thesis that digital platforms have transformed into private quasi-regulators, which creates a critical asymmetry of negotiating power and demonstrates the inefficiency of traditional antitrust control. Based on the study of the EU P2B Regulation, the Digital Markets Act (DMA), the new Russian legislation (Federal Law No. 289-FZ), and judicial practice, the preventive European approach (ex ante) and the domestic mechanisms of rights protection are compared. The author proposes directions for modernizing Russian legislation, including the introduction of asymmetric control for systemically important platforms, enshrining the right of businesses to data portability, and adapting the «active role» criterion for the fair application of information intermediary immunity.Keywords: platform economy, digital platforms, marketplaces, P2B Regulation, Digital Markets Act (DMA), antitrust regulation, data portability, information intermediary
Protecting Rights in a Digital ContractSHULBAEV Procopii VyacheslavovichPostgraduate Student of the Department of Civil Law and Procedure of the Academy of Labor and Social Relations119454, Moscow, Lobachevsky Str., 90, office 106, Russian FederationAbstract: The purpose of this article is to study and analyze the risks and law enforcement issues associated with the immutability of software code, proof in court proceedings, and the protection of the violated rights of digital market participants. Particular attention is paid to mechanisms for minimizing legal risks. The article examines the system of substantive and procedural means of protecting rights in contracts concluded and executed in the digital environment (click-, browse-, sign-wrap-agreements, smart contracts). Based on a triad of doctrinal provisions (formal equivalence with enhanced material control, the rule of law over code, and priority for protecting the weaker party), it concludes that further improvement of Russian legislation is necessary to ensure a balance between technological innovation and effective judicial protection.Keywords: digital contract, smart contract, click-wrap, browse-wrap, consumer protection
Tokenization of Investment Funds: New Trends in Legal RegulationKONAROVSKII Nikita AlexandrovichMaster’s Student of the Faculty of Law of Lomonosov Moscow State University119991, Moscow, Leninskie Gory, 1, Building 13 (4th Academic Building), Room 526A, Russian FederationAbstract: The purpose of this paper is to identify and define the new trend toward the tokenization of investment funds. The article identifies the strategic advantages and risks of fund tokenization, analyzes the experience of leading foreign countries, and proposes promising approaches to regulation within the Russian legal framework in light of Federal Law No. 282 «On Digital Currencies and Digital Rights».Keywords: tokenization, investment funds, DLT, distributed ledger technology, digital rights
Admissibility of the Transaction Dispute Procedure in Respect of a Transfer of Funds to a Carrier or Agent in Payment of Carriage ChargeKAREV Maksimilian KonstantinovichPostgraduate Student of Saint-Petersburg University of Management Technologies and Economics190020, St. Petersburg, 44 Lermontovsky Prospekt, Building A, Russian FederationAbstract: The purpose of the article is to identify the grounds determining the admissibility of the transaction dispute procedure in respect of a transfer of funds to a carrier or agent in payment of carriage charge for the air carriage of a passenger. The study employed formal-legal and logical methods, as well as an analysis of judicial decisions. It is argued that the refund of funds resulting from the use of the dispute procedure is of a technical nature and does not, in itself, constitute grounds for the payer to receive them.Keywords: contract for air carriage of passenger, refund of carriage charge, transaction dispute, chargeback, dispute, payment card, payment system, Faster Payments System, acquiring, unjust enrichment
Participation of the Russian Federation in Business Entities: Development Trends and ProspectsROZHKOV Nikita GennadievichApplicant of the Faculty of Law of the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics115054, Moscow, Stremyanny Lane, 36, Russian FederationAbstract: The purpose of the work is to determine the versatility and complexity of the process of state participation in business entities within the framework of corporate legal relations, taking into account the establishment of trends and development prospects. The regulatory legal framework requires improvement and addition not only for the protection of state interests, but also for the protection of the rights of minority shareholders and other subjects of corporate relations with the participation of the state. We believe that for the long-term development of these relations in Russia, first of all, it is necessary to find a balance between the interests of the state and the private sector. The success of these relationships has a great impact on the country’s economy as a whole and on long-term economic growth.Keywords: business entities, corporate governance, dualism, legal entity, corporate legal relations, corporations with state participation
Legal Features of Collecting Yasak in the Context of the Tax Activities of the State in the Far East During the First and Second Kamchatka ExpeditionsKRYUCHKOV Daniil VladimirovichPostgraduate Student of the Department of History of State and Law of Lomonosov Moscow State University119991, Moscow, Leninskie Gory, 1, building 13 (4th academic building), room 521 A, Russian FederationAbstract: The article examines, on the basis of archival documents from the First and Second Kamchatka expeditions as well as normative acts of the 18th century, the role of yasak (a fur tribute) as a legal instrument for extending and maintaining the imperial authority of the Russian Empire over the Far East. Special attention is given to the interconnection between the state’s fiscal activities and expeditionary policies. The article concludes that yasak both stimulated Russia’s territorial expansion and created a legal framework for controlling new lands, while its collection often involved serious violations, leading to migrations and requiring central government intervention.Keywords: yasak, tax system, Second Kamchatka Expedition, Russian Empire, tax collection abuse
References
- Kratkij otchet V. Beringa o pervoj e`kspedicii (1725–1730 gg.) // E`lektronnaya biblioteka istoricheskix dokumentov [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://docs.historyrussia.org/ru/nodes/500147.
- Andreev N. Yu. Vliyanie nalogovogo prava Mongol`skoj imperii na Russkoe gosudarstvo i pravo // Vestnik VGU. Seriya: Pravo. 2016.
- Plotnikov A. Yu. K voprosu o znachenii Kuril`skix ostrovov v istorii Aziatsko-Tixookeanskogo regiona // Vestnik Moskovskogo gosudarstvennogo lingvisticheskogo universiteta. Obshhestvenny`e nauki. 2018. № 3 (806).
- Murav`eva L. A. Russkaya Amerika v XIX veke // Finansy` i kredit. 2011. № 20.
- Merkulov A. N. Arxeologicheskie danny`e o promy`slax srednedonskogo naseleniya skifskogo vremeni // Teoriya i praktika arxeologicheskix issledovanij. 2025. № 2.
- Rubio K. X. Posledstviya deyatel`nosti evropejskogo kolonializma na Tixookeanskom Severe Ameriki nachinaya s XVI v. // Sibirskie istoricheskie issledovaniya. 2023. № 4.
- Evtexov R. A. Formirovanie sistemy` vnutrennej bezopasnosti v Zabajkal`e vo vtoroj polovine XVII – nachale XVIII v. // Prigranichnoe sotrudnichestvo: istoricheskie soby`tiya i sovremenny`e realii : materialy` mezhdunarodnoj nauchno-prakticheskoj konferencii, posvyashhyonnoj 70-letiyu vy`sshego yazy`kovogo obrazovaniya v Zabajkal`skom krae (g. Chita, 16 sentyabrya 2022 g.). Chita : ZabGU, 2022.
- Turaev V. A. E`tnicheskaya istoriya ajnov Saxalina i Kuril`skix ostrovov v kontekste rossijsko-yaponskix territorial`ny`x razmezhevanij // Rossiya i ATR. 2018. № 2 (100).
- Ukaz «O nechinenii obid i pritesnenij yasashny`m lyudyam, zhivushhim v Yakutskom vedomstve i Kamchatke» ot 21 maya 1733 g. // Polnoe sobranie zakonov Rossijskoj imperii. Sobranie 1-e. SPb., 1830. T. IX.
- Donoshenie sluzhilogo Petra Bogdanova Shpanbergu s zhaloboj na izbivshego ego zakazchika Shexirdina i s donosom na nego za zloupotrebleniya pri sbore yasaka (20 noyabrya 1734 g.) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Russ/XVIII/1720-1740/2_kamcat_exp_2/61-80/72.phtml.
- Order Beringa Shpanbergu s vy`razheniem nedovol`stva naznacheniem zakazchika Suxanova k sboru yasaka, poskol`ku e`to ne v vedomstve Kamchatskoj e`kspedicii. 24 yanvarya 1735 g. // E`lektronnaya biblioteka istoricheskix dokumentov [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://docs.historyrussia.org/ru/nodes/486456.
- Baxlov I. V., Napalkova I. G. Povolzh`e-Priural`e i Sibir` v territorial`nom komplekse Rossijskoj imperii: specifika kolonizacii i upravleniya // Vestnik ChGU. 2011.
- Instrukciya Shpanberga B. Suxanovu pri ego naznachenii upravlyayushhim delami v Oxotske vmesto I. Bireva (4 oktyabrya 1734 g.) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Russ/XVIII/1720-1740/2_kamcat_exp_2/61-80/65.phtml.
- Voropanov V. A. Russkaya yusticiya i narody` Krajnego Severo-Vostoka Azii // Vestnik Sankt-Peterburgskogo universiteta. Istoriya. 2025. № 2.
- Konev A. Yu. O roli i znachenii instrukcii pogranichny`m dozorshhikam 27 iyunya 1728 g. v pravovom regulirovanii upravleniya i suda «yasachny`x inozemcev» Sibiri // Izvestiya AltGU. 2012. № 4-2 (76).
- Donoshenie olennogo lamuta Otomy` Shpanbergu s pros`boj razreshit` ego rodu platit` yasak i derzhat` amanata v Oxotske (23 yanvarya 1735 g.) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Russ/XVIII/1720-1740/2_kamcat_exp_2/81-100/84.phtml.
- Zapis` Shpanberga o prinyatii yasaka i amanata ot roda lamuta Otomy` v Oxotskuyu yasashnuyu izbu (25 yanvarya 1735 g.) // Vtoraya Kamchatskaya e`kspediciya. Dokumenty` 1734–1736. Morskie otryady` / pod red. N. Oxotinoj-Lind, P. Krotova [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Russ/XVIII/1720-1740/2_kamcat_exp_2/81-100/86.phtml.
The Correct Identification of the Material Plaintiff in Cases of Lawsuits by ProsecutorsSULTANOV Aydar RustemovichCandidate of Law, Advocate, Honored Lawyer of the Republic of Tatarstan, Head of Representative Office «Рeреliaev group» in Tatarstan125047, Moscow, 3rd Tverskaya-Yamskaya St., 39, building 1, Russian FederationAbstract: This article examines the problem of the correct identification of the material plaintiff using specific examples, the need to involve a material plaintiff, the difference between the institution of a material plaintiff and a co-plaintiff. The relevance of the study is caused by an increase in lawsuits filed by prosecutors, as well as an increase in lawsuits in which the prosecutor does not specify the material plaintiff. According to the author, the involvement of a proper material plaintiff should contribute to a more correct and objective resolution of the case.Keywords: material plaintiff, party to the dispute, prosecutor, co-plaintiff, civil procedure
References
- Sultanov A.R. Priklyucheniya vokrug stat`i 169 Grazhdanskogo kodeksa Rossijskoj Federacii po iskam prokuratury` prodolzhayutsya, ili ignorirovanie pravovy`x pozicij Verxovnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii // Evrazijskaya advokatura. 2025. № 6 (77). S. 101 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://doi.org/10.52068/2304-9839_2025_77_6_101.
- Sultanov A.R. Zachem prevrashhat` kartel` v grazhdansko-pravovuyu sdelku? // Rossijskaya yusticiya. 2025. № 2. S. 30–37. DOI 10.52433/01316761_2025_02_30. EDN KOTKQZ.
- Lavrinenkov S.A. Osobennosti processual`nogo polozheniya prokurora v grazhdanskom sudoproizvodstve // Vestnik PAGS. 2011. № 4. S. 80.
- Chenczov N.V. Zashhita gosudarstvenny`x interesov v grazhdanskom sudoproizvodstve: teoreticheskie problemy`: avtoref. dis. … dokt. yurid. nauk. M., 1990. S. 4.
- Smagina E.S. Uchastie gosudarstva v sovremennom civilisticheskom processe: monografiya. M.: Statut, 2021. 268 s.
- Sultanov A.R. Prokurorskie iski. Kto material`ny`j istecz // Konkurenciya i pravo. 2025. № 3. S. 24–32.
- Sultanov A.R. Zachem prevrashhat` kartel` v grazhdansko-pravovuyu sdelku? // Rossijskaya yusticiya. 2025. № 2. S. 30–37. DOI 10.52433/01316761_2025_02_30. EDN KOTKQZ.
- Sultanov A.R. Bor`ba s probelami v Nalogovom kodekse Rossijskoj Federacii i fiksirovanny`mi ideyami v nalogovy`x sporax. M.: OOO Izdatel`stvo Statut, 2022. S. 133.
- Ferencz-Soroczkij A.A. Prokuror v grazhdanskom sudoproizvodstve // Izvestiya vy`sshix uchebny`x zavedenij. Pravovedenie. 1992. № 4. S. 91–95.
- Vorob`ev T.N. Teoreticheskie i prakticheskie problemy` uchastiya prokurora v grazhdanskom sudoproizvodstve: dis. … kand. yurid. nauk. Saratov: SGYuA, 2019. S. 78.
- Sultanov A.R. Yavlyaetsya li kartel` grazhdansko-pravovoj sdelkoj? // Yuridicheskij vestnik Samarskogo universiteta. 2024. T. 10. № 3. S. 26-31. DOI 10.18287/2542-047X-2024-10-3-26-31. EDN IQRDFE.
- Sultanov A.R. Bor`ba za pravovuyu opredelennost` ili poisk spravedlivosti. M.: OOO «Izdatel`stvo «STATUT», 2015. 688 s. (Zapiski sudebnogo yurista). ISBN 978-5-8354-1118-4. EDN NMJZGY.
From Content Regulation to Search Regulation: Article 13.53 of the Russian Code of Administrative Offences and Advertising of Access ToolsSPARTAK Sergey AndreevichCandidate of Political Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Philosophy of Language and Communication of the Faculty of Philosophy of Lomonosov Moscow State University119991, Moscow, Lomonosovsky Prospekt, 27-4, Russian FederationAbstract: The purpose of the study is to determine the legal nature of Article 13.53 of the Russian Code of Administrative Offences, the prohibition on advertising software and hardware tools for accessing restricted resources, and their significance for legal practice. Formal legal, systemic and functional methods were used together with an analysis of the first published enforcement materials. The article argues that the expression «criminalisation of search» is legally inaccurate: the legislature established administrative liability for a cumulative sequence comprising intentional searching, prior knowledge that a specific material is extremist, and actual access to it. The use of a virtual private network is an optional method, not an independent ground of liability. A standard of digital proof is proposed to prevent technical traces from being equated with established guilt. The article substantiates a functional professional exception for bona fide scientific, journalistic, expert, legal, legislative and law-enforcement activities. The proposed safeguards strengthen the evidentiary quality and legitimacy of sovereign regulation without weakening state policy against extremism.Keywords: digital sovereignty, extremist materials, Article 13.53 of the Russian Code of Administrative Offences, administrative liability, intent, prior knowledge, digital evidence, advertising, virtual private network, legal profession, right to information
References
- Ukaz Prezidenta Rossijskoj Federacii ot 28.12.2024 № 1124 «Ob utverzhdenii Strategii protivodejstviya e`kstremizmu v Rossijskoj Federacii» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://publication.pravo.gov.ru/document/0001202412280115.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 31.07.2025 № 281-FZ [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://publication.pravo.gov.ru/document/0001202507310012.
- Kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ob administrativny`x pravonarusheniyax ot 30.12.2001 № 195-FZ. St. 1.5, 2.2, 13.53, 14.3, 26.1, 26.2, 26.11 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_34661/.
- Malaxov S.A. Nesootvetstvie nekotory`x sostavov administrativny`x pravonarushenij v oblasti svyazi i informacii trebovaniyam principa pravovoj opredelennosti // Administrativnoe pravo i process. 2025. № 10. S. 45–49. DOI: 10.18572/2071-1166-2025-10-45-49.
- Rimskij A.V., Dizer O.A., Kuzneczov A.V. Problemy` pravovogo regulirovaniya protivodejstviya rasprostraneniyu e`kstremistskix materialov v informacionno-telekommunikacionny`x setyax: teoreticheskij aspekt i pravoprimenitel`naya praktika // NOMOTHETIKA: Filosofiya. Sociologiya. Pravo. 2026. T. 51, № 1. S. 129–137. DOI: 10.52575/2712-746X-2026-51-1-129-137.
- Sattarov V.D. Gosudarstvenny`j kontrol` v informacionnom prostranstve: yuridicheskij analiz // Vestnik Rossijskoj pravovoj akademii. 2026. № 2. S. 77–87. DOI: 10.33874/2072-9936-2026-0-2-77-87.
- Bershiczkij E`.E. Pravovaya opredelennost` i ocenochny`e kategorii: kratkij ocherk na primere sostavov pravonarushenij v razlichny`x otraslyax prava [E`lektronnoe izdanie]. M.: M-Logos, 2021. 154 s.
- Vlasenko N.A. Razumnost` i opredelennost` v pravovom regulirovanii: monografiya. M.: Institut zakonodatel`stva i sravnitel`nogo pravovedeniya pri Pravitel`stve Rossijskoj Federacii; INFRA-M, 2014. 157 s. DOI: 10.12737/5616.
- Kudryavcev V.V., Mustakimov N.S., Privalova E.A. Znachenie i realizaciya administrativno-pravovy`x mexanizmov kontrolya za informacionny`m prostranstvom v celyax zashhity` osnov konstitucionnogo stroya // Administrativnoe i municipal`noe pravo. 2025. № 6. S. 36–64. DOI: 10.7256/2454-0595.2025.6.75288.
- Lungu E.V. Konstitucionny`e prava i svobody` cheloveka v svete cifrovizacii obshhestvenny`x otnoshenij // Lex russica. 2025. T. 78, № 3. S. 86–97. DOI: 10.17803/1729-5920.2025.220.3.086-097.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 25.07.2002 № 114-FZ «O protivodejstvii e`kstremistskoj deyatel`nosti» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_37867/.
- Ministerstvo yusticii Rossijskoj Federacii. E`kstremistskie materialy` [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://minjust.gov.ru/ru/extremist-materials/.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 31.07.2025 № 332-FZ «O vnesenii izmenenij v Federal`ny`j zakon «O reklame”» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_511149/.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 13.03.2006 № 38-FZ «O reklame». St. 5, ch. 10.8 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_58968/.
- Reshenie Vologodskogo UFAS Rossii № 035/05/5-1030/2025 ot 15.01.2026 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://br.fas.gov.ru/to/vologodskoe-ufas-rossii/010eeeec-aab9-4e09-a6ef-e3647eb6ad05/.
- Kassaciya ostavila bez izmeneniya pervoe v RF reshenie po delu o poiske e`kstremistskogo kontenta // Interfaks [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.interfax.ru/russia/1087814.
- E`kstremistskie materialy` v internete razreshat iskat` ucheny`m i pravooxranitelyam // Forbes Russia [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.forbes.ru/tekhnologii/557652-ekstremistskie-materialy-v-internete-razresat-iskat-ucenym-i-pravoohranitelam.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 26.06.2026 № 210-FZ «O vnesenii izmenenij v Federal`ny`j zakon «O svyazi» i otdel`ny`e zakonodatel`ny`e akty` Rossijskoj Federacii» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_537891/.
- Konstituciya Rossijskoj Federacii. St. 29, 48, 55 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_28399/.
Civil Law Limitations on the Principle of Freedom of Contract and the Abuse of Freedom of ContractRAKHMATULLAEV Alexey IlyichPostgraduate Student of the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Leading Expert of the Department of Public Procurement Appeals of the Moscow Office of the Federal Antimonopoly Service119571, Moscow, Vernadsky Prospekt, house 82, building 1, Russian FederationBASTRIKOV Alexander AlbertovichCandidate of Law, Head of the Legal Department, «Global Service Group Academy» LLC105005, Moscow, Radio Str., 24, building 1, room XV, floor 8, room 1, office 802/11, Russian FederationAbstract: The purpose of this study is to determine how modern civil law combines freedom of contract with necessary limitations that protect the interests of parties and society as a whole. The study demonstrates that contractual autonomy cannot be absolute but requires clear boundaries. The authors compare two models of limitation: the first is based on mandatory norms, where the legislator prohibits certain conditions in advance (ex ante-regulation), while the second is based on judicial review through evaluative concepts such as good faith and fairness (ex post-regulation). The Russian Civil Code is dominated by mandatory norms (approximately 1,600 versus 200 dispositive ones), which significantly narrows the scope for contractual freedom while simultaneously providing protection against abuse. Dispositive norms act as «default» rules that the parties can modify by agreement. When a dispute arises, courts apply evaluative criteria – good faith, reasonableness, and fairness – to review the legality of contractual terms ex post. Abuse of freedom of contract is prevented through prohibitions on circumvention, chicanery, and anticompetitive behavior. Thus, effective regulation requires a balance between prior legislative injunctions and flexible judicial review.Keywords: freedom of contract, mandatory rules, dispositive rules, limitations on contractual autonomy, abuse of rights, good faith, ex ante regulation, ex post regulation, judicial review of contracts
References
- Arxipova E.Yu. Teoreticheskij analiz dispozitivny`x norm prava // Vestnik Saratovskoj gosudarstvennoj yuridicheskoj akademii. 2023. № 5 (154). S. 84–90.
- Belyaeva G.S. Pravovoj rezhim: ponyatie i priznaki // Vestnik Rossijskogo universiteta druzhby` narodov. Seriya: Yuridicheskie nauki. 2021. T. 25, № 1. S. 281–293. doi: 10.22363/2313-2337-2021-25-1-281-293.
- Zubkova A.E., Tkachenko A.V. Primenenie principa dispozitivnosti v resheniyax sudov Rossijskoj Federacii // Vestnik magistratury`. 2023. № 9–2 (144). S. 23–26.
- Kirpicheva A.A. Princip dispozitivnosti v grazhdanskom processe v Rossijskoj Federacii // Molodoj ucheny`j. 2023. № 40 (487). S. 208–211.
- Korol`kov M.A., Pevczova I.E. Svoboda dogovora i ee predely`: imperativny`e ogranicheniya i dispozitivnoe regulirovanie // Vestnik nauki. 2025. № 5 (86). S. 471–479.
- Kuzneczova N.V. Vidy` ogranichenij svobody` dogovora v grazhdanskom prave // Vestnik Udmurtskogo universiteta. Seriya «E`konomika i pravo». 2024. № 2. S. 375–378.
- Letyagina E.A. Princip dispozitivnosti v grazhdanskom prave: sovremenny`e tendencii // Pravo i gosudarstvo: teoriya i praktika. 2023. № 10 (226). S. 339–342.
- Suxanov E.A. O vzaimodejstvii pravovy`x i e`konomicheskix podxodov v izuchenii imushhestvenny`x otnoshenij // Vestnik Moskovskogo universiteta. Seriya 11. Pravo. 2023. № 6. S. 80–95.
- Titova E.S. Princip dobrosovestnosti kak torzhestvo sily` prava v grazhdanskom processe // Legal Bulletin. 2026. № 1. S. 94–103.
- Fedorov S.M. Imperativnost` kak zalog uspeshnogo vzaimodejstviya obshhestva s gosudarstvom // Voprosy` rossijskoj yusticii. 2023. № 23. S. 458–462.
- Asilyan L.V., Necrasova I.E. The essence of state coercion in the mechanism of legal regulation // SHS Web of Conferences. 2023. Vol. 164. P. 1–4. doi: 10.1051/shsconf/202316400092.
- Fonotova O.V., Ukolova M.D. The impact of foreign economic sanctions on commercial contracts // Vestnik of Saint-Petersburg University. Series 14. Law. 2022. № 4. P. 963–974.
- Orlov V. Dispositivity in Russian Business Law // Athens Journal of Law. 2024. Vol. 10, Issue 1 (January). P. 29–46. doi: 10.30958/ajl.10-1-2.
- Platunova T., Pleshivtseva U., Borodulina T. The Problem of Understanding the Evaluative Concepts of Civil Law: the Ratio of Natural and Legal Language // Legal Linguistics. 2023. P. 38–42. doi: 10.14258/leglin(2023)3007.
- Vora S. From Ink to Indelibility: Tracing The Alchemic Transformation of Contract Law into A Constitutionally Entrenched Framework, forged by The Fire of Strasbourg and Tempered by The Forging Hammer of Luxembourg // Global Journal of Politics and Law Research. 2023. Vol. 11, No. 3. P. 31–40.
- Zarra G. The Minimum Content of Imperativeness in European Private International Law: Imperative Norms Originated in EU Law and Public International Law // Imperativeness in Private International Law. The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press, 2022. doi: 10.1007/978-94-6265-499-0_4.
Procedure for interaction between the enforcement officer and the securities register holder in enforcement proceedingsSARGISYAN Artem PavlovichAdvocate, Postgraduate Student of the Department of Civil Procedure, Public Law Activities and Organization of Bailiff Services of the All-Russian State University of Justice (RPA of the Ministry of Justice of Russia)117638, Moscow, Azovskaya str., 2, building 1, Russian FederationAbstract: The author examines the legal nature of the registrar as a specialized subject of enforcement proceedings, identifies the features of the procedural procedure for seizing registered and uncertified securities, analyzes the mechanism of electronic interaction through the system of interdepartmental electronic interaction. Based on the analysis of judicial practice and regulatory regulation, proposals were formulated to improve legal regulation, including the unification of interaction procedures, the establishment of the responsibility of registrars for non-compliance with decisions and the creation of a unified register of securities encumbrances.Keywords: enforcement proceedings, bailiff, holder of the securities register, registrar, seizure of securities, uncertified securities
References
- Gureev V.A., Aksenov I.A. Problemy` ocenki imushhestva dolzhnika v ramkax ispolnitel`nogo proizvodstva // Zakony` Rossii: opy`t, analiz, praktika. 2012. № 8. S. 25-28.
- Zakupen` T.V. Osobennosti pravovogo regulirovaniya deyatel`nosti samoreguliruemy`x organizacij v predprinimatel`skix pravootnosheniyax // Bezopasnost` biznesa. 2011. № 1. S. 4–6.
- Karulin S.V. Problemy` primeneniya special`nogo zakonodatel`stva o ry`nke cenny`x bumag v chasti ispolneniya registratorom sudebny`x aktov // Podgotovlen dlya SPS Konsul`tantPlyus. 2014.
- Kudryavceva V.P. Sub``ekty` ispolnitel`nogo proizvodstva: teoreticheskie aspekty` i pravoprimenitel`ny`e problemy` // Arbitrazhny`j i grazhdanskij process. 2017. № 6. S. 58–63.
- Nastol`naya kniga sudebnogo pristava-ispolnitelya: uchebno-prakticheskoe posobie / I.A. Aksenov, N.N. Bakurova, A.N. Beresnev i dr.; pod red. V.A. Gureeva, S.V. Sazanova. 3-e izd., pererab. i dop. M.: Statut, 2017. 1056 s.
- Svirin Yu.A. Ispolnitel`noe proizvodstvo i transgressiya ispolnitel`nogo prava: monografiya. M.: Overlej, Astra Poligrafiya, 2009. 232 s.
Legal Nature of the Collective Exercise and Protection of Utilitarian and Hybrid Digital RightsMARKAROV Mikhail DavidovichPostgraduate Student of Patrice Lumumba Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, Head of the Investigative Department for the city of Solnechnogorsk of the Main Investigative Directorate of the Investigative Committee of the Russian Federation for the Moscow Region117198, Moscow, Miklukho-Maklaya Street, 6, Russian FederationAbstract: The article investigates the legal nature of the collective exercise and protection of utilitarian and hybrid digital rights. It examines the correlation of the institutions of a representative and a general meeting of digital rights holders, provided for by Federal Law No. 282-FZ of August 04, 2026 «On Digital Currencies and Digital Rights», with the general provisions on representation, decisions of meetings, and contractual models of actions in another’s interest. The subsidiary application of Chapter 9.1 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation to the decisions of the meeting of digital rights holders is substantiated, and the significance of legal qualification for filling regulatory gaps is determined. Clarifications of the limits of collective disposal of claims and the duties of a representative are proposed.Keywords: utilitarian digital rights, hybrid digital rights, civil law community, decisions of meetings, representation, trust management, analogy of law, protection of rights
References
- Grazhdanskij kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii (chast` pervaya) ot 30 noyabrya 1994 g. № 51-FZ // Sobranie zakonodatel`stva Rossijskoj Federacii. 1994. № 32. St. 3301.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 4 avgusta 2026 g. № 282-FZ «O cifrovy`x valyutax i cifrovy`x pravax» // Sobranie zakonodatel`stva Rossijskoj Federacii. 2026. № 32. St. 4479.
- Gruzdev V.V. Grazhdansko-pravovy`e soobshhestva: ponyatie i vidy` // Zhurnal rossijskogo prava. 2021. T. 25. № 10. S. 61–71.
- Grazhdanskij kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii (chast` vtoraya) ot 26 yanvarya 1996 g. № 14-FZ // Sobranie zakonodatel`stva Rossijskoj Federacii. 1996. № 5. St. 410.
- Klyachin A.A. Reshenie sobraniya kak yuridicheskij fakt v korporativnom prave // Shestoj permskij kongress ucheny`x-yuristov. Materialy` mezhdunarodnoj nauchno-prakticheskoj konferencii (Perm`, 16–17 oktyabrya 2015 g.) / otv. red. O.A. Kuzneczova. Perm`, 2015. S. 184–187.
- Kovalenko Yu.N. Pravovaya priroda reshenij sobranij v rossijskom grazhdanskom zakonodatel`stve // Prolog: zhurnal o prave. 2017. № 3. S. 41–48.
- Postanovlenie Plenuma Verxovnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii ot 23 iyunya 2015 g. № 25 «O primenenii sudami nekotory`x polozhenij razdela I chasti pervoj Grazhdanskogo kodeksa Rossijskoj Federacii» // Byulleten` Verxovnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii. 2015. № 8.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 22 aprelya 1996 g. № 39-FZ «O ry`nke cenny`x bumag» // Sobranie zakonodatel`stva Rossijskoj Federacii. 1996. № 17. St. 1918.
- Bank Rossii. Obladaet li predstavitel` vladel`cev obligacij polnomochiem na podpisanie mirovogo soglasheniya v otsutstvie resheniya obshhego sobraniya vladel`cev obligacij? // Oficial`ny`j sajt Banka Rossii. Razdel «Obrashhenie obligacij». Data obnovleniya otveta 29.12.2025.
- Ushakov O., Sizova M. Pravovoj status predstavitelya vladel`cev obligacij i obshhego sobraniya vladel`cev obligacij: procedurny`e voprosy`, problemny`e momenty` // Ry`nok cenny`x bumag. 2014. № 4. S. 55–60.
Specific Aspects of Classifying Objects as Special Technical Equipment and Devices in the Context of Forensic Trace ExaminationSHOGENOV Alan AslanovichPostgraduate Student of the Department of Criminal and Public Law of Moscow University «Synergy»115230, Moscow, 7 Khlebozavodskii Proezd, bldg. 10, Russian FederationAbstract: This article examines the possibility of classifying devices used for the unauthorized opening of security locks as special technical devices and tools in the context of forensic trace examination. A classification of objects used for unauthorized tampering into specific categories is proposed, and the feasibility of manufacturing such devices using modern technologies is explored.Keywords: criminalistics, forensic examination, forensic trace examination, mechanoscopy, special technical means, methods of expert research
References
- Granovskij G.L. Osnovy` trasologii. M.: Nauka, 2006.
- Postanovlenie Plenuma Verxovnogo Suda RF ot 25.12.2018 № 46 «O nekotory`x voprosax sudebnoj praktiki po delam o prestupleniyax protiv konstitucionny`x prav i svobod cheloveka i grazhdanina (stat`i 137, 138, 138.1, 139, 144.1, 145, 145.1 Ugolovnogo kodeksa Rossijskoj Federacii)» // SPS «Konsul`tantPlyus» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_314616.
- Ugolovny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ot 13.06.1996 № 63-FZ // Sobranie zakonodatel`stva RF. 1996. № 25. St. 2954.
- Postanovlenie Pravitel`stva RF ot 01.07.1996 № 770 «Ob utverzhdenii Polozheniya o licenzirovanii deyatel`nosti fizicheskix i yuridicheskix licz, ne upolnomochenny`x na osushhestvlenie operativno-rozy`sknoj deyatel`nosti, svyazannoj s razrabotkoj, proizvodstvom, realizaciej, priobreteniem v celyax prodazhi, vvoza v Rossijskuyu Federaciyu i vy`voza za ee predely` special`ny`x texnicheskix sredstv, prednaznachenny`x (razrabotanny`x, prisposoblenny`x, zaprogrammirovanny`x) dlya neglasnogo polucheniya informacii, i Perechnya vidov special`ny`x texnicheskix sredstv, prednaznachenny`x (razrabotanny`x, prisposoblenny`x, zaprogrammirovanny`x) dlya neglasnogo polucheniya informacii v processe osushhestvleniya operativno-rozy`sknoj deyatel`nosti» // AO «Kodeks» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://docs.cntd.ru/document/9025798.
- Shogenov A.A. Osobennosti i nedostatki metodiki e`kspertnogo issledovaniya mexanicheskix zamkov, kak ob``ektov sudebnoj trasologicheskoj e`kspertizy` // Evrazijskij yuridicheskij zhurnal. 2025. № 9 (208). S. 458-461.
- GOST 5089-2011. Zamki, zashhelki, mexanizmy` cilindrovy`e. Texnicheskie usloviya // AO «Kodeks» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://docs.cntd.ru/document/1200095488.
- Koglina V.A. Kriminalisticheskoe issledovanie izdelij massovogo proizvodstva, izgotovlenny`x po innovacionny`m texnologiyam: dis. … kand. yurid. nauk. M., 2021.
- Polyakova A.V. Formirovanie i razvitie 3D-texnologij v sudebno-e`kspertnoj deyatel`nosti: metodologicheskie i organizacionny`e aspekty`: dis. … kand. yurid. nauk. Ufa, 2023.
- Bushuev V.V. i dr. Sovershenstvovanie sistemy` kriminalisticheskogo opisaniya ob``ektov: spravochnik. M.: Moskovskij universitet MVD Rossii imeni V.Ya. Kikotya, 2021.
Online dispute resolution on marketplaces within the system of civil law protection of consumer rightsGIRFANOV Ilnaz IsrafilovichPostgraduate Student of the University of Management «TISBI»420012, Kazan, Mushtari Str. 13, Russian FederationAbstract: The article is devoted to the study of the legal nature of the institution of online dispute resolution arising between consumers and other participants in transactions on marketplaces, including the marketplace itself. The author focuses on the theoretical and methodological aspects of the issues under study, and therefore examines online dispute resolution from various perspectives: as a legal institution, as a legal relationship, and as a method of protecting rights. Based on the study, the author concludes that the current mechanism of online dispute resolution is at odds with the foundations of Russian civil law, in particular, it limits consumers’ autonomy, the equality of participants in civil law relations, and the freedom of contract.Keywords: online dispute resolution, consumer protection, marketplace, methods of civil law protection, platform law
References
- Grazhdanskoe pravo: uchebnik. V 4 t. T. 1: Obshhaya chast` / otv. red. E.A. Suxanov; 3-e izd., pererab. i dop. M.: Statut, 2023. S. 345.
- Gabov A.V. Razreshenie sporov mezhdu uchastnikami otnoshenij, ispol`zuyushhix posrednicheskuyu cifrovuyu platformu // Vestnik grazhdanskogo processa. 2025. № 6. S. 37–48.
- Burova A.Yu. O razreshenii potrebitel`skix sporov na rossijskix onlajn-platformax // Yurist. 2024. № 8. S. 25–30.
- Opredelenie Pervogo kassacionnogo suda obshhej yurisdikcii ot 01.04.2026 № 88-8103/2026 // SPS «Konsul`tantPlyus».
- Bil` A. Intellektual`naya sobstvennost` i spory`: marketplejsy` // Deloproizvodstvo. 2026. № 2. S. 63–66.
Judicial Counter-Reform Versus Procedural Safeguards: an Analysis of Draft Law No. 1264907-8RAGULIN Andrey ViktorovichDoctor of Law, Associate Professor, Advocate of the Moscow Chamber of Advocates, Head of the Centre for the Study of the Organization and Operation of the Advocacy of the Eurasian Scientific Research Institute of Problems of Law, Editor-in-Chief of the «Eurasian Advocacy» Journal450006, Ufa, Lenina Str., 102, office 24, Russian FederationAbstract: The article provides a comprehensive legal analysis of Draft Federal Law No. 1264907-8, which proposes extensive amendments to civil, commercial, and administrative procedure. It examines the expansion of single-judge and written proceedings, changes to the rules governing the composition of courts, the unification of the functions of judicial assistants and court clerks, the optional nature of preliminary hearings, higher monetary thresholds for simplified and order proceedings, and the abolition of commercial court assessors. The study finds that the stated objectives of reducing judicial workload and accelerating proceedings are not supported by sufficient calculations, while the proposed measures may weaken the guarantees of a tribunal established by law, public hearings, adversarial proceedings, equality of arms, and judicial independence. Particular attention is paid to the draft law’s compatibility with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and Article 14 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The article concludes that the draft law requires substantial revision and concrete compensatory procedural safeguards.Keywords: judicial reform, access to justice, procedural economy, single-judge proceedings, collegial adjudication, written proceedings, preliminary hearing, commercial court assessors, judicial independence, International Co-venant on Civil and Political Rights
References
- Gosudarstvennaya Duma Federal`nogo Sobraniya Rossijskoj Federacii. Zakonoproekt № 1264907-8 «O vnesenii izmenenij v otdel`ny`e zakonodatel`ny`e akty` Rossijskoj Federacii i priznanii utrativshim silu Federal`nogo zakona «Ob arbitrazhny`x zasedatelyax arbitrazhny`x sudov sub``ektov Rossijskoj Federacii”» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://sozd.duma.gov.ru/bill/1264907-8.
- Upravlenie Verxovnogo komissara OON po pravam cheloveka. Mezhdunarodny`e standarty` nezavisimosti sudej i advokatov; Ezhegodny`e tematicheskie doklady` Special`nogo dokladchika OON po voprosu o nezavisimosti sudej i advokatov [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-independence-of-judges-and-lawyers/international-standards; https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-independence-of-judges-and-lawyers/annual-thematic-reports.
- Konstituciya Rossijskoj Federacii [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_28399/.
- Ragulin A.V. «Zaxvat» advokatury` i presledovanie advokatov v Rossijskoj Federacii: kak vernut` nezavisimost` advokatov i pravo grazhdan na zashhitu: nauchno-prakticheskij doklad // Evrazijskaya advokatura. 2025. № 3 (74) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/zahvat-advokatury-i-presledovanie-advokatov-v-rossiyskoy-federatsii-kak-vernut-nezavisimost-advokatov-i-pravo-grazhdan-na-zaschitu.
- Potapenko E.G. «Princip» processual`noj e`konomii i e`ffektivnost` sudoproizvodstva po grazhdanskim delam // Processual`naya e`konomiya v grazhdanskom sudoproizvodstve: sbornik nauchny`x statej po materialam Mezhdunarodnoj nauchno-prakticheskoj konferencii. Sankt-Peterburg: Asterion, 2023 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://nwb.rgup.ru/rimg/Nauka/Seminar%20and%20conf/02.06.2023/Sbornik%20po%20konferencii%2002.06.2023.pdf.
- Postanovlenie Konstitucionnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii ot 19 iyulya 2011 g. № 17-P [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://legalacts.ru/doc/postanovlenie-konstitutsionnogo-suda-rf-ot-19072011-n/.
- Mixajlova A.A. Formirovanie sostava suda kak uslovie obespecheniya ob``ektivnosti i bespristrastnosti pri rassmotrenii dela i vy`nesenii sudebnogo postanovleniya v poryadke grazhdanskogo sudoproizvodstva: avtoref. dis. ... kand. yurid. nauk. Moskva, 2024 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://izak.ru/upload/iblock/1a8/611tcttzcz01d9kmy467x8d584yn31e1/Avtoreferat-Mikhaylovoy-A.A.pdf.
- Gushhina N.A. Nezavisimost` sudej kak predposy`lka spravedlivogo i bespristrastnogo pravosudiya // Zhurnal rossijskogo prava. 2016. № 5 (233) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/nezavisimost-sudey-kak-predposylka-spravedlivogo-i-bespristrastnogo-pravosudiya.
- Postanovlenie Konstitucionnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii ot 21 yanvarya 2010 g. № 1-P [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://legalacts.ru/doc/postanovlenie-konstitutsionnogo-suda-rf-ot-21012010-n/.
- Bugrova E.G. Sudebny`e pravovy`e pozicii v sisteme rossijskogo ugolovno-processual`nogo prava: ponyatie, sut`, naznachenie: dis. ... kand. yurid. nauk. Nizhnij Novgorod, 2021 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.dissercat.com/content/sudebnye-pravovye-pozitsii-v-sisteme-rossiiskogo-ugolovno-protsessualnogo-prava-ponyatie-sut.
- Postanovlenie Konstitucionnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii ot 20 oktyabrya 2015 g. № 27-P [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_187736/92d969e26a4326c5d02fa79b8f9cf4994ee5633b/.
- Postanovlenie Konstitucionnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii ot 30 noyabrya 2012 g. № 29-P [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://legalacts.ru/doc/postanovlenie-konstitutsionnogo-suda-rf-ot-30112012-n/.
- Kakaya srednyaya i mediannaya zarplata v Rossii v 2025 godu: aktual`ny`e cifry` po regionam [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://media.halvacard.ru/financial-literacy/kakaia-sredniaia-i-mediannaia-zarplata-v-rossii-aktualnye-cifry-po-regionam.
- Sharipova A.R. Vy`yavlenie nerabotayushhix processual`ny`x norm v sisteme poiska nacional`noj identichnosti prava // Zhurnal rossijskogo prava. 2026. № 6 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc&base=CJI&n=164350.
- Sidorova P.V. Arbitrazhny`e zasedateli: prazdnik zrelosti obshhestva ili chuzherodny`j e`lement v rossijskom arbitrazhnom processe // Voprosy` rossijskoj yusticii. 2023. № 29 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/arbitrazhnye-zasedateli-prazdnik-zrelosti-obschestva-ili-chuzherodnyy-element-v-rossiyskom-arbitrazhnom-protsesse.
- Vilkova T.Yu. Uchastie grazhdan v otpravlenii pravosudiya kak mezhotraslevoj princip sudoproizvodstva // Aktual`ny`e problemy` rossijskogo prava. 2017. № 6 (79) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/uchastie-grazhdan-v-otpravlenii-pravosudiya-mezhotraslevoy-printsip-sudoproizvodstva.
- Schetnaya palata Rossijskoj Federacii. Otchet o rezul`tatax e`kspertno-analiticheskogo meropriyatiya «Analiz tekushhego sostoyaniya informatizacii sudebnoj sistemy` Rossijskoj Federacii». Moskva, 2025 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://ach.gov.ru/upload/iblock/208/iyyjf0n0narwngqbwf1b6n8naxyl5t5h/Otchet-EAM-Informatizatsiya-sudebnoy-sistemy-SUDEBNAYA-SISTEMA.pdf.
- 34 mln del za god i nexvatka kadrov: itogi sudejskogo soveshhaniya [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://legalacademy.ru/sphere/post/34-mln-del-i-kontrol-dlya-ii-glavnye-novosti-uhodyaschei-nedeli.
- Taj Yu. «Podschitali – proslezilis`». Posledstviya povy`sheniya gosposhliny` [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://zakon.ru/blog/2025/10/21/podschitali_-_proslezilis_posledstviya_povysheniya_gosposhliny.
- Komitet OON po pravam cheloveka. Zamechanie obshhego poryadka № 32. Stat`ya 14: ravenstvo pered sudami i tribunalami i pravo kazhdogo na spravedlivoe sudebnoe razbiratel`stvo. CCPR/C/GC/32 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CCPR%2FC%2FGC%2F32&Lang=en.
- Advokatskaya palata goroda Moskvy`. Otzy`v na proekt federal`nogo zakona № 1264907-8, utverzhdenny`j resheniem Soveta ot 30 iyunya 2026 g. [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.advokatymoscow.ru/doc/isx.3373.pdf.
- Kostyuk A.S. Processual`naya e`konomiya v nauchny`x trudax processualistov dorevolyucionnogo perioda // Vestnik Poloczkogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Seriya D. E`konomicheskie i yuridicheskie nauki. 2026. № 1 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/protsessualnaya-ekonomiya-v-nauchnyh-trudah-protsessualistov-dorevolyutsionnogo-perioda.
- Vetoshkina E.D., Koshheeva E.S. Ideologiya kollegial`nosti v praktike mezhdunarodnogo ugolovnogo pravosudiya // Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. 2022. № 478 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/ideologiya-kollegialnosti-v-praktike-mezhdunarodnogo-ugolovnogo-pravosudiya.
- Dmitrienko O.A. Osnovy` formirovaniya sostava suda v grazhdanskom i arbitrazhnom processe // Vestnik magistratury`. 2018. № 12-1 (87) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/osnovy-formirovaniya-sostava-suda-v-grazhdanskom-i-arbitrazhnom-protsesse.
- Faroi T.V. Nekotory`e administrativno-pravovy`e voprosy` obespecheniya nezavisimosti sudej // Sibirskoe yuridicheskoe obozrenie. 2018. № 4 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/nekotorye-administrativno-pravovye-voprosy-obespecheniya-nezavisimosti-sudey.
- Makarova O.V. Institut predsedatelej sudov kak e`lement organizacii deyatel`nosti sudov obshhej yurisdikcii // Zhurnal rossijskogo prava. 2017. № 6 (246) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/institut-predsedateley-sudov-kak-element-organizatsii-deyatelnosti-sudov-obschey-yurisdiktsii.
- Volujkov K. Obyazatel`ny`j uchet pozicij Verxovnogo Suda RF pri vy`nesenii sudebny`x reshenij: kak maj 2026 goda menyaet prirodu rossijskogo pravosudiya [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://zakon.ru/blog/2026/6/4/obyazatelnyj_uchet_pozicij_verhovnogo_suda_rf_pri_vynesenii_sudebnyh_reshenij_kak_maj_2026_goda_meny.
- Asyun`kina P.A., Buryak D.N. K voprosu o prakticheskoj nevostrebovannosti instituta arbitrazhny`x zasedatelej // Skif. 2022. № 11 (75) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/k-voprosu-o-prakticheskoy-nevostrebovannosti-instituta-arbitrazhnyh-zasedateley.
- Orlova K.A. Sovremenny`e problemy` realizacii pravovogo statusa arbitrazhny`x zasedatelej pri otpravlenii pravosudiya // Yuridicheskie zapiski. 2013. № 1 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/sovremennye-problemy-realizatsii-pravovogo-statusa-arbitrazhnyh-zasedateley-pri-otpravlenii-pravosudiya.
- Koroleva V.S., Eremina E.M. Uchastie arbitrazhny`x zasedatelej v sudebnom processe // Vestnik nauki i obrazovaniya. 2021. № 10-2 (113) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/uchastie-arbitrazhnyh-zasedateley-v-sudebnom-protsesse.
- Bajdarova M.A. Konstitucionno-pravovaya priroda suda prisyazhny`x zasedatelej v Rossijskoj Federacii // Sovremennoe pravo. 2015. № 6 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.sovremennoepravo.ru/m/articles/view/Konstitucionno-pravovaya-priroda-suda-prisyazhny`x-zasedatelej-v-Rossijskoj-Federacii.
The Phenomenon of Shrinkflation in Criminal Law: the Correspondence of Cost-Based Criteria for Differentiating Liability to the Principles of Equality and JusticeBULYCHEV Evgeny NikolaevichCandidate of Law, Associate Professor, Associate Professor of the Department of Constitutional and Administrative Law of the Bashkir Academy of Public Administration and Management under the Head of the Republic of Bashkortostan450008, Ufa, Z. Validi Str., 40, Russian FederationAbstract: The article substantiates that, in the context of inflationary processes, fixed absolute threshold values are devalued, which leads to an extra-legislative tightening of criminal liability and a change in the category of crimes without changing the text of the law. The author introduces the concept of «shrinkflation of criminal liability measures (shrinkflation of sanctions)» into scientific discourse as a situation in which the actual value of the subject of a crime or the damage is changed while the previous threshold values and liability measures remain unchanged, which violates constitutional principles. Two methods for solving the problem are proposed: a systematic review of absolute values and linking to a conditional value (for example, the minimum wage). The preference for the second approach is justified, taking into account the positive experience of CIS countries.Keywords: shrinkflation of criminal liability measures, shrinkflation of sanctions, bribe, significant amount, large amount, especially large amount, inflation, principle of equality, principle of justice, minimum wage, corruption crimes, criminal liability
References
- Ukazanie Genprokuratury` Rossii № 35/11, MVD Rossii № 1 ot 24.01.2020 (red. ot 13.07.2020) «O vvedenii v dejstvie perechnej statej Ugolovnogo kodeksa Rossijskoj Federacii, ispol`zuemy`x pri formirovanii statisticheskoj otchetnosti. Prilozhenie. Perechen` № 23 prestuplenij korrupcionnoj napravlennosti» // Sudebny`e i normativny`e akty` RF (SudAkt) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: //sudact.ru/law/ukazanie-genprokuratury-rossii-n-3511-mvd-rossii/prilozhenie/perechen-n-23-prestuplenii-korruptsionnoi/.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 08.12.2003 № 162-FZ «O vnesenii izmenenij i dopolnenij v Ugolovny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii» // SPS Konsul`tantPlyus [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_45408/.
- Finansovy`j marketplejs Banki.ru [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.banki.ru/news/daytheme/?id=11018714&ysclid=mtgz4b397569108681.
- Informacionno-prosvetitel`skij sajt SberBanka «SberSova» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://sbersova.ru/sections/invest/dorozhe-ili-deshevle-zolota-skolko-stoyat-dragocennye-metally?ysclid=mtl3j96zm839033907.
- Shrinkflyaciya: chto e`to takoe i kak ona vliyaet na pokupatelej // Soobshheniya i materialy` informacionnogo agentstva «RBK» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.rbc.ru/base/08/05/2026/69fdc0dc9a79475da7590c75?ysclid=mtl5ojlkt532874217.
- Konstituciya Rossijskoj Federacii (prinyata vsenarodny`m golosovaniem 12.12.1993 s izmeneniyami, odobrenny`mi v xode obshherossijskogo golosovaniya 01.07.2020) // SPS Konsul`tantPlyus [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_28399/a4d26fe6022253f9f9e396e9ca6f63c80946702f/.
- Ugolovny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ot 13.06.1996 № 63-FZ (red. ot 04.08.2026) // SPS Konsul`tantPlyus [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_10699/ca44f5ca7fe63fad08f66b87e34e9a2c91b7d329/.
- Ugolovny`j kodeks Respubliki Kazaxstan ot 3 iyulya 2014 goda № 226-V (s izmeneniyami i dopolneniyami po sostoyaniyu na 20.08.2026 g.) p. 2, p. 3 i p. 38 st. 3 // IS «Paragraf» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://prg.kz/document/?doc_id=31575252&ysclid=mtl7buq2y6911642095&pos=591;45.
- Zakon Respubliki Kazaxstan ot 8 dekabrya 2025 goda № 239-VIII «O respublikanskom byudzhete na 2026-2028 gody`» // IS «Paragraf» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://prg.kz/document/?doc_id=1026672&pos=5;132.
Specifics of Regulating Criminal Liability for Falsification of Operational-Search Activity Results: a Comparative AnalysisNAMNYASEVA Victoriya VyacheslavovnaСandidate of Law, Associate Professor, Professor of the Criminal Law Department of the Volgograd Academy of the Internal Affairs Ministry of Russia400075, Volgograd, str. Historicheskaya, 130, Russian FederationAbstract: The article analyzes statistical data on the application of the legal provision establishing criminal liability for the falsification of operational-search activity results. The effectiveness of countering this act has been noted as insufficient. With a view to improving national legislation, certain aspects of foreign legislative experience regarding the drafting of criminal law provisions relevant to the subject of this study have been examined. The criminal law measures employed by various states, specifically those related to defining the constitutive and qualifying elements of the crime of falsifying the results of operational-search activities, have been highlighted as positive practices.Keywords: legislative construction, norm of criminal law, falsification, results of operational-search activities, foreign experience, differentiation of criminal liability
References
- Xalikov A. Fal`sifikaciya rezul`tatov operativno-rozy`sknoj deyatel`nosti // Ugolovnoe pravo. 2013. № 2. S. 59–66.
- Epixin A.Yu. Mezhotraslevy`e problemy` fal`sifikacii rezul`tatov operativno-razy`sknoj deyatel`nosti (ch. 4 st. 303 UK RF) // Vestnik Udmurtskogo universiteta. 2015. T. 25, vy`p. 4. S. 99–104.
- Oficial`ny`j sajt Rossijskoj kriminologicheskoj associacii im. A. I. Dolgovoj. Statistika prestupnosti [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://crimas.ru/?page_id=5050.
- Danny`e sudebnoj statistiki. Svedeniya o chisle osuzhdenny`x po vsem sostavam prestuplenij Ugolovnogo kodeksa Rossijskoj Federacii za 2013–2025 gody` // Sudebny`j departament pri Verxovnom Sude RF: oficz. sajt [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: http://www.cdep.ru.
- Borkov V.N. Prestupleniya, sovershaemy`e pri osushhestvlenii pravosudiya, predvaritel`nogo rassledovaniya i operativno-rozy`sknoj deyatel`nosti: monografiya. Omsk: Omskaya akademiya MVD Rossii, 2022. 180 s.
- Ugolovny`j kodeks Franczuzskoj Respubliki // Vsemirnaya organizaciya intellektual`noj sobstvennosti, specializirovannoe uchrezhdenie Organizacii Ob``edinyonny`x Nacij: oficz. sajt [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/ru/legislation/details/23309.
- Ugolovny`j kodeks Respubliki Bolgariya // Ministerstvo yusticii Respubliki Bolgariya: oficz. sajt [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://justice.government.bg/home/normdoc/1589654529.
- Obshhegrazhdanskij Ugolovny`j kodeks Korolevstva Norvegiya // Vsemirnaya organizaciya intellektual`noj sobstvennosti, specializirovannoe uchrezhdenie Organizacii Ob``edinyonny`x Nacij: oficz. sajt [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/ru/legislation/details/15417.
- Ugolovny`j kodeks Korolevstva Daniya // Vsemirnaya organizaciya intellektual`noj sobstvennosti, specializirovannoe uchrezhdenie Organizacii Ob``edinyonny`x Nacij: oficz. sajt [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/ru/legislation/details/19534.
- Ugolovny`j kodeks Socialisticheskoj Respubliki V`etnam // Vsemirnaya organizaciya intellektual`noj sobstvennosti, specializirovannoe uchrezhdenie Organizacii Ob``edinyonny`x Nacij: oficz. sajt [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/ru/legislation/details/17225.
- Ugolovny`j kodeks Respubliki Armeniya // Informacionnaya sistema «Paragraf Yurist» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=39571894&ysclid=mhdqnchj9i21982383.
- Ugolovny`j kodeks Respubliki Kazaxstan // Informacionnaya sistema «Paragraf Yurist» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=31575252&ysclid=mhdqy30e1b530908682.
- Ugolovny`j kodeks Respubliki Uzbekistan // Informacionnaya sistema «Paragraf Yurist» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=30421110&ysclid=mhdra9dkxx512495152.
Digital Traces of Commercial Bribery in the Corporate Environment: Forensic Classification and Evidentiary SignificanceKAMINSKY Aleksander AlekseevichPostgraduate Student of the Faculty of Law of the Lomonosov Moscow State University119991, Moscow, Leninskie Gory, Building 1, Russian FederationAbstract: This article examines the digital traces of commercial bribery in the corporate environment amid the digitalization of economic activity. It is argued that modern commercial bribery leaves evidentiary information not only in traditional physical and documentary sources, but also in corporate email, instant messaging, electronic document management systems, banking applications, event logs, cloud storage, mobile devices, and, in some cases, in digital currency infrastructure. A forensic classification of digital traces of commercial bribery is proposed based on their source and evidentiary function, and the specifics of their detection, recording, seizure, and interpretation are analyzed, taking into account the requirements of criminal procedure law and the need for specialized knowledge. It is concluded that digital traces should be considered a systemically important element of the modern trace picture of commercial bribery.Keywords: commercial bribery, digital traces, corporate environment, forensic characteristics, electronic evidence, digital forensics, special knowledge, anti-corruption compliance
References
- Ugolovny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ot 13.06.1996 № 63-FZ // Sprav.-pravovaya sistema Konsul`tantPlyus [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_10699/.
- Ishhenko E.P. U istokov cifrovoj kriminalistiki // Vestnik Universiteta imeni O.E. Kutafina (MGYuA). 2019. № 3 (55). S. 15–28 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://vestnik.msal.ru/jour/article/view/730.
- Rossinskaya E.R. Problemy` ispol`zovaniya spe-cial`ny`x znanij v sudebnom issledovanii komp`yuterny`x prestuplenij v usloviyax cifrovizacii // Vestnik Universiteta imeni O.E. Kutafina (MGYuA). 2019. № 5 (57). S. 31–44 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://vestnik.msal.ru/jour/article/view/780.
- Voronin M.I. O pravovoj prirode e`lektronny`x (cifrovy`x) dokazatel`stv // Vestnik Universiteta imeni O.E. Kutafina (MGYuA). 2020. № 10. S. 74–81 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://vestnik.msal.ru/jour/article/view/1243.
- Platonov V.V. Obespechenie dopustimosti e`lektron-ny`x dokazatel`stv v ugolovnom sudoproizvodstve // Aktual`ny`e problemy` rossijskogo prava. 2025. T. 20. № 8 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://aprp.msal.ru/jour/article/view/5359.
- Ivanov V.Yu. O teoreticheskix aspektax ispol`zo-vaniya v kriminalistike ponyatiya e`lektronno-cifrovogo sleda // Yuridicheskie issledovaniya. 2020. № 7. S. 75–80 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/o-teoreticheskih-aspektah-ispolzovaniya-v-kriminalistike-ponyatiya-elektronno-tsifrovogo-sleda.
- Postanovlenie Plenuma Verxovnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii ot 09.07.2013 № 24 «O sudebnoj praktike po delam o vzyatochnichestve i ob iny`x korrupcionny`x prestupleniyax» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_149092/.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 20.02.2026 № 38-FZ «O vnesenii izmenenij v stat`yu 104.1 Ugolovnogo kodeksa Rossijskoj Federacii i Ugolovno-processual`ny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_527055/b004fed0b70d0f223e4a81f8ad6cd92af90a7e3b/#dst100019.
- Ugolovno-processual`ny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ot 18.12.2001 № 174-FZ [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_34481/.
- Metodicheskie rekomendacii po razrabotke i prinyatiyu organizaciyami mer po preduprezhdeniyu i protivodejstviyu korrupcii [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://mintrud.gov.ru/ministry/programms/anticorruption/015/0.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 25.12.2008 № 273-FZ «O protivodejstvii korrupcii» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_82959/.
European Court of Human Rights and Private International LawNOVRUZOVA Saadat Samed kiziSenior Lecturer of Law Department of the Khazar UniversityAZ1096, Baku, Mehseti Ganjavi Str., 41, Azerbaijan RepublicAbstract: One consequence of the expanding activity of the European Court of Human Rights (hereinafter the «EСtHR») is that its interaction with private international law (hereinafter «PIL») is taking on particular significance. PIL governs civil, labor, family, property, and other private-law relationships that contain a foreign element. In this field, national and international courts address issues such as international jurisdiction, applicable law, the recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments, family relations, international adoption, and other similar matters. A number of human rights relevant to the subject matter of PIL are directly enshrined in the articles of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (hereinafter the «Convention»). Conversely, applicants frequently invoke a wide range of PIL issues in their complaints, requiring the ECtHR to articulate its position regarding these norms. This article examines the nature of the interaction between the ECtHR’s activities and PIL through an analysis of relevant case law that has defined the Court’s stance on PIL rules.Keywords: European Court, human rights, convention, private international law, precedentСписок источников/References:
- Pellegrini v Italy, no. 30882/96, 20 July 2001.
- Neulinger and Shuruk v Switzerland [GC], no. 41615/07, 6 July 2010.
- X v Latvia [GC], no. 27853/09, 26 November 2013.
- Mennesson v. France, no. 65192/11, 26 June 2014.
- Beyeler v Italy, no. 33202/96, 5 January 2000.
Decomposition of the Forensic Examination Process Into Components According to the Model: Purpose, Object, Subject, TasksESKOV Aleksandr AleksandrovichForensic Expert, employee of LLC «Cadastral Valuation and Expertise»628601, Nizhnevartovsk, Khanty-Mansiyskaya St., 2, building 1, office 213, Russian FederationMOSHKINA Irina ViktorovnaForensic Expert, employee of LLC «Cadastral Valuation and Expertise»628601, Nizhnevartovsk, Khanty-Mansiyskaya St., 2, building 1, office 213, Russian FederationAbstract: A four-level structural model of forensic examination – «goal → object → subject → tasks» – is proposed, grounded in Aristotle’s teleology, Popper’s falsifiability, and Hempel’s scheme. The examination purpose is defined as facilitating justice through reliable factual data using specialised knowledge. The model accounts for adversarial rights of the parties and identifies a gap in Russian law regarding scientific admissibility, benchmarked against Daubert. Six «noise» categories – polysemy, cognitive bias, illocutionary misalignment, and others – are mapped to procedural consequences. The model is a coherence-verification tool and a foundation for sector-specific checklists.Keywords: forensic examination, structural-logical model, decomposition of expert examination, purpose of forensic examination, forensic examination noise, coherence of expert report, scientific admissibility of evidence, cognitive bias in expert testimony, procedural consequences of expert report defects, teleology of expert activity, falsifiability of expert knowledge
References
- Aristotel`. Sochineniya. V 4-x tomax. T. 3 / Per., vstup. stat`ya i primech. I.D. Rozhanskij. M.: My`sl`, 1981.
- Arsen`ev V.D., Zabloczkij V.G. Ispol`zovanie special`ny`x znanij pri ustanovlenii fakticheskix obstoyatel`stv ugolovnogo dela. Krasnoyarsk: Izd-vo Krasnoyar. un-ta, 1986.
- Bunge M. Prichinnost`: mesto principa prichinnosti v sovremennoj nauke / Obshh. red. i zaklyuchitel`naya st. G.S. Vaseczkogo; per. s angl. I.S. Shern-Borisovoj, S.F. Shushurina. Izd. 2-e. Moskva: URSS, 2010.
- Buty`rin A.Yu., Zhukova O.V., Stativa E.B. Osnovny`e zadachi sudebno-e`kspertny`x issledovanij, provodimy`x pri sudebnom rassmotrenii zemel`ny`x sporov // Teoriya i praktika sudebnoj e`kspertizy`. 2020. № 15 (1). S. 94–108.
- Be`kon F. Novy`j Organon = Novum organum scientiarum. Leningrad: Socze`kgiz, Leningradskoe otd-nie, 1935.
- Vitgenshtejn L. Filosofskie raboty` / Per. s nem. i vstup. stat`ya M.S. Kozlovoj; per. Yu.A. Aseeva. M.: Izdatel`stvo «Gnozis», 1994.
- Gadamer X.-G. Istina i metod. Osnovy` filos. germenevtiki / Per. s nem., obshh. red. i vstup. B.N. Bessonova. M.: Progress, 1998.
- Galilej Galileo. Probirny`x del master / Per. Yu.A. Danilova. M.: Nauka, 1987.
- Gegel` G.V.F. Nauka logiki: v 3 t. / Per. s nem. B.G. Stolpnera. Moskva: My`sl`, 1970–1972.
- Gempel` K.G. Logika ob``yasnenij / Per. s angl. O.A. Nazarovoj. M.: Dom intellektual`noj knigi, Russkoe fenomenologicheskoe obshhestvo, 1998.
- Givecz P.V., Griber A., Kokin A.V. O kriteriyax ocenki zaklyucheniya e`ksperta i e`kspertny`x metodik uchastnikami sudoproizvodstva // Teoriya i praktika sudebnoj e`kspertizy`. 2022. № 17 (1). S. 27-37.
- Gil`bert D. O beskonechnom / Per. s nem. // Osnovaniya geometrii. Moskva; Leningrad: OGIZ, 1948. S. 338–364.
- GOST 22690-2015. Betony`. Opredelenie prochnosti mexanicheskimi metodami nerazrushayushhego kontrolya. Moskva: Standartinform, 2016.
- GOST 17624-2021. Betony`. Ul`trazvukovoj metod opredeleniya prochnosti. Moskva: Standartinform, 2021.
- GOST R 54852-2011. Zdaniya i sooruzheniya. Metod teplovizionnogo kontrolya kachestva teploizolyacii ograzhdayushhix konstrukcij. Moskva: Standartinform, 2012.
- GOST 31937-2024. Zdaniya i sooruzheniya. Pravila obsledovaniya i monitoringa texnicheskogo sostoyaniya. Moskva: Rossijskij institut Standartizacii, 2024.
- GOST R 58527-2019. Materialy` stenovy`e. Metody` opredeleniya predelov prochnosti pri szhatii i izgibe. Moskva: Standartinform, 2019.
- GOST R 55724-2013. Kontrol` nerazrushayushhij. Soedineniya svarny`e. Metody` ul`trazvukovy`e. Moskva: Standartinform, 2015.
- Gofman I. Predstavlenie sebya drugim v povsednevnoj zhizni / Per. s angl. i vstup. st. A.D. Kovalyova. Moskva: KANON-Press-Cz: Kuchkovo pole, 2000.
- Grajs G.P. Logika i rechevoe obshhenie / Per. s angl. V.V. Turovskogo // Novoe v zarubezhnoj lingvistike. Vy`p. 16: Lingvisticheskaya pragmatika. Moskva: Progress, 1985. S. 217–237.
- Gusserl` E`. Idei k chistoj fenomenologii i fenomenologicheskoj filosofii. Kniga pervaya / Per. s nem. A.V. Mixajlova. Moskva: Akademicheskij proekt, 2009.
- Dekart R. Rassuzhdenie o metode. Metafizicheskie rassuzhdeniya. Nachala filosofii. Luczk: Vezha, 1998.
- Ivanova E.V. E`kspertny`e zadachi i ix klassifikacii [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: DOI 10.17150/2411-6262.2025.16(3).963-974.
- Kaneman D. Dumaj medlenno… reshaj by`stro / Per. s angl. A. Andreeva, Yu. Deglinoj, N. Parfyonovoj. Moskva: AST, 2014.
- Kaneman D., Siboni O., Sanstejn K. Shum: nesovershenstvo chelovecheskix suzhdenij / Per. s angl. A. Kotova [i dr.]. Moskva: AST, 2021.
- Karnap R. Znachenie i neobxodimost`. Issledovanie po semantike i modal`noj logike / Per. s angl. N.V. Vorob`yova. Moskva: Izd-vo inostr. lit., 1959.
- Kassirer E`. Poznanie i dejstvitel`nost`. Ponyatie o substancii i ponyatie o funkcii / Per. s nem. B. Stolpnera, P. Yushkevicha. Sankt-Peterburg: Univ. kniga, 1996.
- Kuajn U.V.O. Ontologicheskaya otnositel`nost` / Per. s angl. A.A. Pechenkina // Sovremennaya filosofiya nauki: znanie, racional`nost`, cennosti v trudax my`slitelej Zapada: xrestomatiya. Moskva: Logos, 1996. S. 40–60.
- Kuzneczov O.G. Predmet, ob``ekt i zadacha sudebnoj e`kspertizy` // Herald of KRSU. 2008. T. 8. № 3. S. 126–133.
- Kun T. Struktura nauchny`x revolyucij / Per. s angl. I.Z. Naletova. M.: AST: AST MOSKVA, 2009.
- Lakatos I. Fal`sifikaciya i metodologiya nauchno-issledovatel`skix programm / Per. s angl. V.N. Porusa // Izbranny`e proizvedeniya po filosofii i metodologii nauki. Moskva: Akademicheskij proekt, 2008. S. 281–474.
- Lotman Yu.M. Semiosfera. Sankt-Peterburg: Iskusstvo-SPb, 2000.
- Lotman Yu.M. Struktura xudozhestvennogo teksta. Moskva: Iskusstvo, 1970.
- Mazurov I.E., Murashev P.M., Trushhenkov I.V. Metodika naznacheniya i proizvodstva sudebnoj e`ksper-tizy`: uchebnoe posobie. 2-e izd., pererab. i dop. Moskva: Yuniti-Dana, 2024 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://biblioclub.ru/index.php?page=book&id=720517.
- Merton R.K. Social`naya teoriya i social`naya struktura / Per. s angl. E.N. Egorovoj [i dr.]. Moskva: AST: Xranitel`, 2006.
- Prikaz Minstroya Rossii ot 23.12.2019 № 841/pr «Ob utverzhdenii Metodiki sostavleniya smetnogo raschyota (smety`) na stroitel`stvo». Otmenen.
- Ostin Dzh.L. Slovo kak dejstvie / Per. s angl. A.A. Mednikovoj // Novoe v zarubezhnoj lingvistike. Vy`p. 17: Teoriya rechevy`x aktov. Moskva: Progress, 1986. S. 22–129.
- Pirs Ch.S. Izbranny`e filosofskie proizvedeniya / Per. s angl. K. Golubovich, K. Chuxrukidze, T. Dmitrieva. M.: Logos, 2000.
- Popper K. Logika nauchnogo issledovaniya / Per. s angl., pod obshh. red. V.N. Sadovskogo. M.: Respublika, 2005.
- Prikaz Ministerstva yusticii RF ot 20.04.2023 № 72 «Ob utverzhdenii perechnya rodov (vidov) sudebny`x e`kspertiz, vy`polnyaemy`x v federal`ny`x byudzhetny`x sudebno-e`kspertny`x uchrezhdeniyax Minyusta Rossii, i perechnya e`kspertny`x special`nostej, po kotory`m predostavlyaetsya pravo samostoyatel`nogo proizvodstva sudebny`x e`kspertiz v federal`ny`x byudzhetny`x sudebno-e`kspertny`x uchrezhdeniyax Minyusta Rossii» (v red. Prikaza Minyusta Rossii ot 31.01.2024 № 32).
- Prixod`ko I.A., Bondarenko A.V., Stolyarenko V.M. Sudebnaya e`kspertiza i sudebno-e`kspertnaya deyatel`nost`: osnovny`e problemy` i puti ix resheniya (po materialam sudebnoj praktiki). Moskva: Mezhdunarodny`e otnosheniya, 2023.
- Proekt Federal`nogo zakona № 306504-6 «O sudebno-e`kspertnoj deyatel`nosti v Rossijskoj Federacii i vnesenii izmenenij v otdel`ny`e zakonodatel`ny`e akty` Rossijskoj Federacii» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://sozd.duma.gov.ru/bill/306504-6.
- Rikkert G. Granicy estestvennonauchnogo obrazovaniya ponyatij / Per. s nem. A. Vodena. Sankt-Peterburg: Nauka, 1997.
- Syorl` Dzh.R. Chto takoe rechevoj akt; Klassifikaciya illokutivny`x aktov / Per. s angl. I.M. Kobozevoj // Novoe v zarubezhnoj lingvistike. Vy`p. 17: Teoriya rechevy`x aktov. Moskva: Progress, 1986. S. 151-169; 170–194.
- Svod pravil SP 13-102-2003. Pravila obsledovaniya nesushhix stroitel`ny`x konstrukcij zdanij i sooruzhenij: utv. Postanovleniem Gosstroya Rossii ot 21.08.2003 № 153. Moskva: Gosstroj Rossii, 2003.
- SP 15.13330.2020 «SNiP II-22-81* Kamenny`e i armokamenny`e konstrukcii»: utv. prikazom Ministerstva stroitel`stva i zhilishhno-kommunal`nogo xozyajstva RF ot 30.12.2020 № 902/pr (s Izmeneniem № 1, utv. prikazom Minstroya Rossii ot 21.12.2023 № 961/pr). M.: Standartinform, 2021.
- SP 17.13330.2017 «SNiP II-26-76* Krovli» (aktualizirovannaya redakciya): utv. prikazom Ministerstva stroitel`stva i zhilishhno-kommunal`nogo xozyajstva RF ot 31.05.2017 № 827/pr. M.: Minstroj Rossii, 2017.
- SP 20.13330.2016 «SNiP 2.01.07-85* Nagruzki i vozdejstviya» (aktualizirovannaya redakciya): utv. prikazom Minstroya Rossii ot 03.12.2016 № 891/pr (s Izmeneniyami № 1, 2, 3). M.: Standartinform, 2020.
- Svod pravil SP 70.13330.2012. Nesushhie i ograzhdayushhie konstrukcii. Aktualizirovannaya redakciya SNiP 3.03.01-87: utv. Prikazom Gosstroya ot 25.12.2012 № 109/GS. Moskva: Minregion Rossii, 2012.
- Svod pravil SP 71.13330.2017. Izolyacionny`e i otdelochny`e pokry`tiya. Aktualizirovannaya redakciya SNiP 3.04.01-87: utv. Prikazom Minstroya Rossii ot 27.02.2017 № 128/pr. Moskva: Minstroj Rossii, 2017.
- Sossyur F. de. Kurs obshhej lingvistiki / Per. s fr. A.M. Suxotina; pod red. M.E`. Rut. Ekaterinburg: Izd-vo Ural. un-ta, 1999.
- Tarskij A. Ponyatie istiny` v yazy`kax deduktivny`x nauk / Per. s pol`sk. // Filosofiya i logika L`vovsko-Varshavskoj shkoly`. Moskva: ROSSPE`N, 1999. S. 156.
- Xabermas Yu. Teoriya kommunikativnogo dejstviya (fragmenty`) / Per. s nem. A.K. Sudakova // Voprosy` social`noj teorii. 2007. T. 1. Vy`p. 1. S. 229-245.
- Yudin I.V. Predmet sudebnoj e`kspertizy` v grazhdanskom sudoproizvodstve // Ucheny`e zapiski Kry`mskogo federal`nogo universiteta imeni V.I. Vernadskogo. Yuridicheskie nauki. 2020. T. 6 (72). № 3. S. 121–125.
- Rule 702. Testimony by Expert Witnesses [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/fre/rule_702.
- Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993). The Library of Congress [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep509/usrep509579/usrep509579.pdf.
- Daubert Standard. Legal Information Institute [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/daubert_standard.
- Daubert Standard [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.collinsattorneys.com/wp-content/uploads/docs/daubert_standard_us_supreme_court_expert_testimony.pdf.
- Dror I.E., Charlton D. Why Experts Make Errors // Journal of Forensic Identification. 2006. Vol. 56. № 4. P. 600–616.
- Dror I.E., Charlton D., Péron A.E. Contextual Information Renders Experts Vulnerable to Making Erroneous Identifications // Forensic Science International. 2006. Vol. 156. № 1. P. 74–78.
- Gigerenzer G., Todd P.M., ABC Research Group. Ecological Rationality: An Adaptive View of Cognitive Limitations // Simple Heuristics That Make Us Smart. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. P. 3–34.
- Shannon C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication // Bell System Technical Journal. 1948. Vol. 27. P. 379–423 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://people.math.harvard.edu/~ctm/home/text/others/shannon/entropy/entropy.pdf.
- Tversky A., Kahneman D. Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases // Science. 1974. Vol. 185. № 4157. P. 1124-1131.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 24.07.2002 № 95-FZ «Ar-bitrazhny`j processual`ny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii».
- Belkin R.S. Kurs sovetskoj kriminalistiki. T. 3: Kriminalisticheskie sredstva, priemy` i rekomendacii. M., 1979. S. 55.
- GOST 34791-2021. Sudebno-trasologicheskaya e`kspertiza. Terminy` i opredeleniya. M.: Standartinform, 2021.
- GOST R 58081-2018. Sudebno-e`kologicheskaya e`kspertiza. Terminy` i opredeleniya. M.: Standartinform, 2018.
- GOST R 58794-2020. Sudebnaya e`kspertiza markirovochny`x oboznachenij. Terminy` i opredeleniya. M.: Standartinform, 2020.
- GOST R 59508-2021. Sudebno-pocherkovedcheskaya e`kspertiza. Terminy` i opredeleniya. M.: Standartinform, 2021.
- GOST R 59529-2021. Sudebnaya stroitel`no-texnicheskaya e`kspertiza. Terminy` i opredeleniya. M.: Standartinform, 2021.
- GOST R 70699-2023. Sudebno-pochvovedcheskaya e`kspertiza. Terminy` i opredeleniya. M.: Standartinform, 2023.
- GOST R 71232-2024. Rody` sudebny`x e`kspertiz. Terminy` i opredeleniya. M.: Institut standartizacii, 2024.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 14.11.2002 № 138-FZ «Grazhdanskij processual`ny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii».
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 08.03.2015 № 21-FZ «Kodeks administrativnogo sudoproizvodstva Rossijskoj Federacii».
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 30.12.2001 № 195-FZ «Kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ob administrativny`x pravonarusheniyax».
- Kozin P.A., Kuzneczov D.D. Metodicheskie rekomendacii po sudebnoj ocenochnoj e`kspertize ob``ektov nedvizhimosti (versiya 1.1). 2014.
- Koruxov Yu.G. Slovar` osnovny`x terminov sudebny`x e`kspertiz. Moskva: SUDE`KS, 2010.
- Koruxov Yu.G. Sudebnaya e`kspertiza v arbitrazhnom processe (Prakticheskoe posobie dlya e`kspertov i sudej). Moskva: IPK RFCzSE`, 2007.
- Koruxov Yu.G. Sudebnaya e`kspertiza v ugolovnom processe (Prakticheskoe posobie dlya e`kspertov i sudej). M.: Press Byuro, 2010.
- Model`ny`j zakon o sudebno-e`kspertnoj deyatel`nosti: prinyat na sorok devyatom plenarnom zasedanii Mezhparlamentskoj Assamblei gosudarstv – uchastnikov SNG 19 apr. 2019g., postanovlenie № 49-8 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://iacis.ru/public/upload/files/1/742.pdf.
- Orlov Yu.K. Sudebnaya e`kspertiza kak sredstvo dokazy`vaniya v ugolovnom sudoproizvodstve. M.: Institut povy`sheniya kvalifikacii Rossijskogo federal`nogo centra sudebnoj e`kspertizy`, 2005.
- Postanovlenie Plenuma Verxovnogo Suda RF ot 29.12.2010 № 28 «O sudebnoj e`kspertize po ugolovny`m delam».
- Rossinskaya E.R., Galyashina E.I. Nastol`naya kniga sud`i: sudebnaya e`kspertiza: teoriya i praktika, tipichny`e voprosy` i nestandartny`e situacii. Moskva: Prospekt, 2025.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 18.12.2001 № 174-FZ «Ugolovno-processual`ny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii».
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 31.05.2001 № 73-FZ «O gosudarstvennoj sudebno-e`kspertnoj deyatel`nosti v Rossijskoj Federacii».
The Concept of Victim’s Consent in Russian Civil Law: Legal Qualification and the Limits of ConsentSUNAGATULLIN Stanislav RuslanovichPostgraduate Student of the Department of Civil Law of the Faculty of Law of Lomonosov Moscow State University 119991, Moscow, Leninskie Gory, 1, bldg. 13, Russian FederationAbstract: The article argues that consent is an act of a transactional nature, while the rules governing legal transactions do not automatically apply to it in their entirety. It is demonstrated that consent does not, as a rule, create a subjective right to cause harm, but confers a legal possibility to perform an act that would otherwise constitute a violation of the victim’s right. Particular attention is paid to consent concerning personal non-property rights. The article argues that the criterion of the moral principles of society is insufficient and proposes determining the objective limits of consent with regard to the rights of third parties, public interests and, in exceptional cases, the interests of the victim, on the basis of the constitutional principle of proportionality.Keywords: victim’s consent, legal fact, legal transaction, personal non-property rights, principle of proportionality
References
- Ohly A. Volenti non fit iniuria. Die Einwilligung im Privatrecht. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2002.
- Rosener W. Die Einwilligung in Heileingriffe, Diss. Berlin, 1965.
- Urteil des Bundesgerichtshofes vom 29. Juni 1976 VI ZR 68/75 // Neue Juristische Wochenschrift. München: C.H. Beck Verlag, 1976. Vol. 29. S. 1790.
- von Bar C. The Common European Law of Torts. Volume Two: Damage and Damages, Liability for and without Personal Misconduct, Causality, and Defences. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Zitelmann E. Ausschluss der Widerrechtlichkeit // Archiv für die civilistische Praxis. 1906.
- Agarkov M.M. Ponyatie sdelki po sovetskomu grazhdanskomu pravu // Agarkov M.M. Izbranny`e trudy` po grazhdanskomu pravu. V 2 t. T. 1: Social`naya cennost` chastnogo prava i otdel`ny`x institutov obshhej chasti grazhdanskogo prava. M.: Statut, 2012.
- Agarkov M.M. Pravootnoshenie (gl. XII maketa uchebnika po teorii gosudarstva i prava 1948 g.) // Vestnik grazhdanskogo prava. 2022. № 3.
- Varshavskij K.M. Obyazatel`stva, voznikayushhie vsledstvie prichineniya drugomu vreda / K.M. Varshavskij. Moskva: Yurid. izd-vo NKYu RSFSR, 1929.
- Grazhdanskoe pravo: Uchebnik: V 4 t. T. 2: Veshhnoe pravo. Nasledstvennoe pravo. Intellektual`ny`e prava. Lichny`e neimushhestvenny`e prava / Otv. red. E.A. Suxanov. 2-e izd. pererab. i dop. M.: Statut, 2019.
- Krasavchikov O.A. Yuridicheskie fakty` v sovetskom grazhdanskom prave. Moskva, 1958.
- Maleina M.N. Dogovor ob uchastii zdorovogo grazhdanina v klinicheskom issledovanii novy`x metodov profilaktiki, diagnostiki, lecheniya i reabilitacii // Medicinskoe pravo. 2020. № 5 // SPS «Konsul`tantPlyus».
- Maleina M.N. Ponyatie i vidy` nematerial`ny`x blag kak ob``ektov lichny`x neimushhestvenny`x prav // Gosudarstvo i pravo. 2014. № 7.
- Novoselova L.A. Rasporyazhenie telom cheloveka: grazhdansko-pravovoj aspekt // Zakon. 2021. № 8.
- Ostanina E.A. O prirode i soderzhanii informirovannogo soglasiya na medicinskuyu pomoshh` // Vestnik Chelyabinskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Seriya: Pravo. 2022. T. 7, vy`p. 1.
- Ostanina E.A. O dogovornom mexanizme priobreteniya prava na ispol`zovanie e`lementov obraza fizicheskogo licza // Vestnik grazhdanskogo prava. 2025. № 2 // SPS «Konsul`tantPlyus».
- Ostanina E.A. Pravo na ispol`zovanie imeni kak ob``ekt dogovora. Kommentarij k Opredeleniyu Sudebnoj kollegii po grazhdanskim delam VS RF ot 22 marta 2022 goda № 43-KG21-7-K6 // Vestnik e`konomicheskogo pravosudiya Rossijskoj Federacii. 2023. № 1 // SPS «Konsul`tantPlyus».
- Smirnov V.T., Sobchak A.A. Obshhee uchenie o deliktny`x obyazatel`stvax. L., 1983.
- Tret`yakov S.V. O probleme dogmaticheskoj kvalifikacii «pravomochiya rasporyazheniya» // Osnovny`e problemy` chastnogo prava: sbornik statej k yubileyu d-ra yurid. nauk, prof. Aleksandra L`vovicha Makovskogo / otv. red. V.V. Vitryanskij, E.A. Suxanov. M.: Statut, 2010.
- Tret`yakov S.V. Razvitie ucheniya o sub``ektivnom chastnom prave v zarubezhnoj civilistike: dis. … dokt. yur. nauk 12.00.03. Moskva, 2022.
- Ul`bashev A.X. Obshhee uchenie o lichny`x pravax. Moskva, 2019.
- Flejshicz E.A. Lichny`e prava v grazhdanskom prave Soyuza SSR i kapitalisticheskix stran // Flejshicz E.A. Izbranny`e trudy` po grazhdanskomu pravu: v 2 t. T. 1. M.: Statut, 2015.
- Yacenko T.S. Imya fizicheskogo licza kak predmet sdelki: ot kritiki do priznaniya v grazhdanskom prave // Vestnik grazhdanskogo prava. 2022. № 3 // SPS «Konsul`tantPlyus».
- Grazhdanskoe pravo: uchebnik / pod red. A.P. Sergeeva. 2-e izd. M., 2019. T. 3. S. 21; Shevchenko A.S., Shevchenko G.N. Deliktny`e obyazatel`stva v rossijskom grazhdanskom prave: Uchebnoe posobie. M.: Statut, 2013 // SPS «Konsul`tantPlyus».
The Right to Verifiable VisibilitySPARTAK Sergey AndreevichCandidate of Political Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Philosophy of Language and Communication of the Faculty of Philosophy of Lomonosov Moscow State University119991, Moscow, Lomonosovsky Prospekt, 27-4, Russian FederationAbstract: The article introduces the category of the «right to verifiable visibility» not as a right to popularity, but as a set of procedural guarantees enabling the reconstruction of the origin of socially significant digital reach and the mechanism governing access to a digital service. Using formal legal, comparative legal, and practice-oriented methods, the article examines the 2024 Romanian election campaign, Russian law, French proceedings concerning X and Grok, Chinese regulation of algorithms, and restrictions on the distribution of MAX and VK applications. It distinguishes formal availability, actual visibility, and the evidentiary verifiability of reach. A special evidentiary regime for major platforms during election periods and an infrastructure continuity regime for socially significant applications are proposed. Digital sovereignty is defined as the capacity to preserve, verify, reproduce, and legally remedy a platform-mediated process.Keywords: digital sovereignty, algorithmic visibility, recommender systems, platform power, election law, Digital Services Act, app stores, digital gatekeepers, evidentiary access, infrastructure continuity
References
- Gillespie T. The Relevance of Algorithms // Media Technologies: Essays on Communication, Materiality, and Society / ed. by T. Gillespie, P.J. Boczkowski, K.A. Foot. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014. P. 167–194. DOI: 10.7551/mitpress/9780262525374.003.0009.
- Balkin J.M. Free Speech in the Algorithmic Society: Big Data, Private Governance, and New School Speech Regulation // UC Davis Law Review. 2018. Vol. 51. P. 1149–1210 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://lawreview.law.ucdavis.edu/archives/51/3/free-speech-algorithmic-society-big-data-private-governance-and-new-school-speech.
- Klonick K. The New Governors: The People, Rules, and Processes Governing Online Speech // Harvard Law Review. 2018. Vol. 131. No. 6. P. 1598–1670 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://harvardlawreview.org/print/vol-131/the-new-governors-the-people-rules-and-processes-governing-online-speech/.
- Cobbe J., Singh J. Reviewable Automated Decision-Making // Computer Law & Security Review. 2020. Vol. 39. Art. 105475. DOI: 10.1016/j.clsr.2020.105475.
- Curtea Constituțională a României. Ruling No. 32 of 6 December 2024 on the Annulment of the Electoral Process Regarding the Election of the President of Romania in 2024 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.ccr.ro/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/RULING-No-32-2024.pdf.
- European Commission. Commission, Online Platforms and Civil Society Increase Monitoring During Romanian Elections. 5 December 2024 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/commission-online-platforms-and-civil-society-increase-monitoring-during-romanian-elections.
- European Commission. Commission Opens Formal Proceedings against TikTok on Election Risks under the Digital Services Act. 17 December 2024 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/commission-opens-formal-proceedings-against-tiktok-election-risks-under-digital-services-act.
- Regulation (EU) 2022/2065 of 19 October 2022 on a Single Market for Digital Services (Digital Services Act). Arts. 34, 35, 39, 40 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2022/2065/oj/eng.
- Regulation (EU) 2024/900 of 13 March 2024 on the Transparency and Targeting of Political Advertising. Art. 30(2) [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/900/oj/eng.
- European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission). Urgent Report on the Cancellation of Election Results by Constitutional Courts, CDL-AD(2025)003. Strasbourg, 27 January 2025 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD%282025%29003-e.
- OSCE/ODIHR. Romania, Repeat Presidential Election, 4 and 18 May 2025: Final Report. 28 October 2025 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://odihr.osce.org/odihr/elections/romania/600295.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 12.06.2002 № 67-FZ «Ob osnovny`x garantiyax izbiratel`ny`x prav i prava na uchastie v referendume grazhdan Rossijskoj Federacii» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_37119/.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 10.01.2003 № 19-FZ «O vy`borax Prezidenta Rossijskoj Federacii» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_40445/.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 27.07.2006 № 149-FZ «Ob informacii, informacionny`x texnologiyax i o zashhite informacii». St. 10.2-2 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_61798/.
- Parquet de Paris. Une perquisition est diligentée dans les locaux français de la plateforme X. 03.02.2026; Ouverture d’une information judiciaire concernant le fonctionnement de la plateforme X. 07.05.2026 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.tribunal-de-paris.justice.fr/sites/default/files/2026-02/20260203CPXFrance.pdf; https://www.tribunal-de-paris.justice.fr/sites/default/files/2026-05/2026-05-07%20-%20CP%20ouverture%20d%27information%20sur%20X.pdf.
- Code pénal français. Articles 323-2, 323-3. Légifrance [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/article_lc/LEGIARTI000030939443; https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/article_lc/LEGIARTI000030939448.
- European Commission. Commission Investigates Grok and X’s Recommender Systems under the Digital Services Act. 26 January 2026 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/commission-investigates-grok-and-xs-recommender-systems-under-digital-services-act.
- 互联网信息服务算法推荐管理规定 [Pravila upravleniya algoritmicheskimi rekomendaciyami v internet-informacionny`x servisax]: prikaz № 9; dejstvuyut s 01.03.2022 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.cac.gov.cn/2022-01/04/c_1642894606364259.htm.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 24.06.2025 № 156-FZ «O sozdanii mnogofunkcional`nogo servisa obmena informaciej…»; rasporyazhenie Pravitel`stva RF ot 12.07.2025 № 1880-r [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_508287/; https://publication.pravo.gov.ru/document/0001202507150024.
- Ogranicheniya prilozhenij MAX i VK v App Store: Interfaks. 03.06.2026, 04.06.2026, 25.06.2026; Reuters. 25.06.2026 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.interfax.ru/russia/1093707; https://www.interfax.ru/business/1098256; https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/kremlin-demands-explanation-apple-after-russian-apps-removed-app-store-2026-06-25/.
- Council Implementing Regulation (EU) 2026/1708 of 13 July 2026; «Prilozheniya VK i MAX ischezli iz Google Play» // Interfaks. 16.07.2026 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg_impl/2026/1708/oj/eng; https://www.interfax.ru/digital/1103699.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 07.07.2025 № 194-FZ «O vnesenii izmenenij v Zakon Rossijskoj Federacii «O zashhite prav potrebitelej”« [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL:https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_509282/.
- International Law Commission. Articles on Responsibility of States. 2001; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. 1966; Human Rights Committee. General Comment No. 34. 2011; UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. 2011 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/draft_articles/9_6_2001.pdf; https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/english/bodies/hrc/docs/gc34.pdf; https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/publications/guidingprinciplesbusinesshr_en.pdf.
- Apple. Global Trade Compliance; App Store Support; OFAC General License No. 25G; OFSI. Monetary Penalty – Apple Distribution International Limited. 19.03.2026 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.apple.com/legal/more-resources/gtc.html; https://developer.apple.com/support/app-store/; https://ofac.treasury.gov/media/933536/download?inline=; https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/69ca1da04321776215360a1c/ADI_Public_Penalty_Notice.pdf.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 26.07.2006 № 135-FZ «O zashhite konkurencii». St. 10, 10.1 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_61763/.
- Regulation (EU) 2022/1925 (Digital Markets Act). Art. 6(4); European Commission. App Distribution; Pravila KNR ob informacionny`x servisax mobil`ny`x prilozhenij. 2022 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2022/1925/oj/eng; https://www.cac.gov.cn/2022-06/14/c_1656821626455324.htm.
The Constitutional and Legal Foundations of the State Policy of the Russian Federation in the Field of Protection of the Institution of the Family and Family ValuesARZUMANOVA Silva MikhailovnaCandidate of Law, Associate Professor, Department of Public Law and Private Law Disciplines, Institute of Jurisprudence and Engineering of Pyatigorsk State University357532, Pyatigorsk, Kalinin Str., 9, Russian FederationRYABOVA Tatiana VladimirovnaCandidate of Law, Senior Lecturer, Department of Public Law and Private Law Disciplines, Institute of Jurisprudence and Engineering of Pyatigorsk State University357532, Pyatigorsk, Kalinin Str., 9, Russian FederationAbstract: The article examines the main directions of state policy in the field of development and preservation of the institution of the family and family values. Special attention is paid to the definition of the institution of the family and its significance at the present time, as well as an analysis of the constitutional and legal regulation and protection of family values. It is established that, taking into account the peculiarities of various subjects of the Russian Federation, the legal regulation of the institution of the family is fixed in different ways, but has the same legal protection. Attention is focused on the implementation of the state policy of the Russian Federation to preserve the institution of the family and family values. The main problems in the implementation of state policy have been identified and the main directions for achieving the objectives of strengthening the authority of the family and family values have been identified.Keywords: Constitution of the Russian Federation, family, family values, the institution of the family, state policy, the state, society, state support, protection of family values
References
- E`ngel`s F. Proisxozhdenie sem`i, chastnoj sobstvennosti i gosudarstva. V svyazi s issledovaniyami L`yuisa G. Morgana. M.: Politizdat, 1989. 224 s.
- Bol`shaya sovetskaya e`nciklopediya / gl. red. O.Yu. Shmidt. Ruchnoe ognestrel`noe oruzhie – Sericit T. 50. M.: OGIZ RSFSR, 1944. 464 s.
- Arstal` A. Sem`ya i ee zadachi : kniga dlya roditelej i vospitatelej, sostavlennaya roditelyami i druz`yami detej / pod redakciej Akselya Arstalya ; razrabotanny`j i dopolnenny`j dlya russkix chitatelej perevod s norvezhskogo podlinnika A. i P. Ganzen. SPb.: izdanie A.F. Marksa, [1903]. 461 s.
- Gupolov Yu.V. Formirovanie instituta sovetskoj sem`i kak ob``ekta gosudarstvennoj politiki: 1917–1940 g.g. (na materialax RSFSR): avtoref. dis. … kand. ist. nauk. M., 2012.
- Konstituciya Rossijskoj Federacii (prinyata vsenarodny`m golosovaniem 12.12.1993 s izmeneniyami, odobrenny`mi v xode obshherossijskogo golosovaniya 01.07.2020) // SPS «Konsul`tant Plyus» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: http://base.consultant.ru/.
- Ryabova T.V. Konstitucionnaya identichnost` Rossii v sovremenny`x usloviyax gosudarstvennogo razvitiya // Problemy` konstitucionno-pravovogo razvitiya Rossii: Sbornik nauchny`x statej po materialam Vserossijskoj nauchno-prakticheskoj konferencii, posvyashhennoj Dnyu Konstitucii Rossijskoj Federacii, Rostov-na-Donu, 13 dekabrya 2021 goda / Pod redakciej A.N. Pozdny`shova, E`.E`. Barinova, E.V. Markinoj. Rostov-na-Donu: Obshhestvo s ogranichennoj otvetstvennost`yu AzovPrint, 2022. S. 231–235. EDN JVCBSW.
- Ukaz Prezidenta RF ot 09.11.2022 № 809 «Ob utverzhdenii Osnov gosudarstvennoj politiki po soxraneniyu i ukrepleniyu tradicionny`x rossijskix duxovno-nravstvenny`x cennostej» // SPS «Konsul`tant Plyus» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: http://base.consultant.ru/.
- Rossijskaya Gazeta. Federal`ny`j vy`pusk ot 23.01.2024 № 9255 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://rg.ru/2024/01/23/putin-dal-start-godu-semi-v-rossii.html.
- Ukaz Prezidenta Rossijskoj Federacii ot 22.11.2023 № 875 «O provedenii v Rossijskoj Federacii Goda sem`i» // SPS «Konsul`tant Plyus» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: http://base.consultant.ru/.
- Konstitucionnoe obespechenie zashhity` sem`i i semejny`x cennostej / S.M. Arzumanova, E`.I. Atagimova, Z.K. Ayupova [i dr.]. M.: Obshhestvo s ogranichennoj otvetstvennost`yu Prospekt, 2025. 440 s. ISBN 978-5-392-43572-2. EDN DHYCIS.
Comparative Analysis of the Legal Regulation of Relations Between Digital Platforms and Entrepreneurs in the Russian Federation and the European UnionDEMIDOV Leon IgorevichIndependent Researcher, Legal Counsel of the National Research University ITMO197101, St. Petersburg, Kronverksky Ave., 49, letter A, Russian FederationAbstract: The article provides a comparative legal analysis of the regulation of relations between digital platforms and professional users in the Russian Federation and the European Union. It substantiates the thesis that digital platforms have transformed into private quasi-regulators, which creates a critical asymmetry of negotiating power and demonstrates the inefficiency of traditional antitrust control. Based on the study of the EU P2B Regulation, the Digital Markets Act (DMA), the new Russian legislation (Federal Law No. 289-FZ), and judicial practice, the preventive European approach (ex ante) and the domestic mechanisms of rights protection are compared. The author proposes directions for modernizing Russian legislation, including the introduction of asymmetric control for systemically important platforms, enshrining the right of businesses to data portability, and adapting the «active role» criterion for the fair application of information intermediary immunity.Keywords: platform economy, digital platforms, marketplaces, P2B Regulation, Digital Markets Act (DMA), antitrust regulation, data portability, information intermediary
References
- Aleksaxin A.N., Aleksaxina S.A., Gorshkova A.A., Bajtimerova L.S. Sovremenny`e tendencii razvitiya platformennoj e`konomiki // Vestnik Akademii znanij. 2024. № 5 (64). S. 46–52.
- Vasiyan R.I. Nekotory`e aspekty` pravovogo regulirovaniya platformennoj e`konomiki v Rossijskoj Federacii // Rossijskoe pravo: obrazovanie, praktika, nauka. 2025. № 4. S. 67–75. DOI: 10.34076/2410-2709-2025-148-4-67-75.
- Il`chenko A.A. Problemy` razvitiya teorii i metodologii cenoobrazovaniya na ry`nke cifrovy`x uslug: mezhdu neoklassikoj, povedencheskoj e`konomikoj i institucional`noj slozhnost`yu // Innovacionnaya e`konomika: informaciya, analitika, prognozy`. 2024. № S3. S. 88–103. DOI: 10.18334/et.11.6.121253.
- Koverchenko I.I. Osobennosti otvetstvennosti operatorov cifrovy`x platform za narushenie isklyuchitel`ny`x prav // Zhurnal Suda po intellektual`ny`m pravam. 2025. Sentyabr`. № 3(49). S. 130–141. DOI: 10.58741/23134852_2025_3_13.
- Kry`czula A.A. Cifrovy`e platformy` vzaimodejstviya professional`ny`x uchastnikov ry`nka (B2B segment) // Vestnik Permskogo universiteta. Yuridicheskie nauki. 2026. № 1. S. 65–77. DOI: 10.17072/2619-0648-2026-1-65-77.
- Laty`nin A.O. Svoboda dogovora v cifrovoj srede: klassifikaciya ogranichivayushhix norm i ix vliyanie na strukturu chastnoj avtonomii // Teoriya i praktika obshhestvennogo razvitiya. 2026. № 1. S. 233–240. DOI: 10.24158/tipor.2026.1.30.
- Mel`nik V.D. O nekotory`x osobennostyax internet-sporov, voznikayushhix iz sdelok, sovershenny`x na marketplejse // Rossijskoe pravo: obrazovanie, praktika, nauka. 2023. № 5. S. 47–53. DOI: 10.34076/2410-2709-2023-138-5-47-53.
- Ryabuxin S.N., Kokorev I.A., Safronova A.A., Pokrovskaya O.D., Fomenko N.M. Osnovny`e tendencii i perspektivy` platformennoj e`konomiki v Rossijskoj Federacii // Mir novoj e`konomiki. 2025. T. 19, № 2. S. 134–148. DOI: 10.26794/2220-6469-2025-19-2-134-148.
- Shatskaya I.I., Ilyasov D.A. Ponyatie «marketplejs» v rossijskom zakonodatel`stve: problemy` opredeleniya i puti unifikacii // Pravo i gosudarstvo: teoriya i praktika. 2025. № 7. S. 199–202. DOI: 10.47643/1815-1337_2025_7_199.
- Bostoen F. Understanding the Digital Markets Act // Journal of European Competition Law & Practice. 2022. Vol. 13, No. 2. P. 75–86. DOI: 10.1093/jeclap/lpab094.
Protecting Rights in a Digital ContractSHULBAEV Procopii VyacheslavovichPostgraduate Student of the Department of Civil Law and Procedure of the Academy of Labor and Social Relations119454, Moscow, Lobachevsky Str., 90, office 106, Russian FederationAbstract: The purpose of this article is to study and analyze the risks and law enforcement issues associated with the immutability of software code, proof in court proceedings, and the protection of the violated rights of digital market participants. Particular attention is paid to mechanisms for minimizing legal risks. The article examines the system of substantive and procedural means of protecting rights in contracts concluded and executed in the digital environment (click-, browse-, sign-wrap-agreements, smart contracts). Based on a triad of doctrinal provisions (formal equivalence with enhanced material control, the rule of law over code, and priority for protecting the weaker party), it concludes that further improvement of Russian legislation is necessary to ensure a balance between technological innovation and effective judicial protection.Keywords: digital contract, smart contract, click-wrap, browse-wrap, consumer protection
References
- Axmedov A. Koncepciya pravovogo regulirovaniya otnoshenij, oslozhnenny`x ispol`zovaniem smart-kontraktov: monografiya pod redakciej Volosa A.A. M.: Prospekt, 2020. S. 224.
- Braginskij M.I., Vitryanskij V.V. Dogovornoe pravo. Kniga pervaya: Obshhie polozheniya. M.: Statut, 2001. S. 490.
- Zasemkova O.F. O sposobax razresheniya sporov, voznikayushhix iz smart-kontraktov // Lex Russica. 2020. T. 73. № 4. S. 11–12.
- Korchagin A.G., Provatkina V.E., Voloshina T.V. Smart-kontrakty`: pravovoe regulirovanie, riski dlya biznesa i zashhita prav predprinimatelej // Obrazovanie i pravo. № 8. S. 531–538.
- Kirillova E.A., Zul`fugarzade T.E`. Grazhdansko-pravovoe obespechenie smart-kontraktov: monografiya. M.: INFRA-M, 2024. S. 168.
- Minasyan N.T. Ponyatie i pravovaya priroda smart-kontraktov // Sovremennoe pravo. 2025. № 11. S. 23–29.
- Novikov N.A., Mixajlova E.V. Uregulirovanie sporov v Rossii: pravovaya priroda i puti razvitiya // Notarial`ny`j vestnik. 2021. № 10. S. 45–58.
- Romanov A.A. Grazhdansko-pravovy`e sposoby` zashhity` prav na virtual`ny`e aktivy` // Arbitrazhny`j i grazhdanskij process. 2025. № 12. S. 3–8.
- Safin V.I. Osobennosti pravovogo regulirovaniya zaklyucheniya i ispolneniya smart-kontraktov: opy`t Rossijskoj Federacii i zarubezhny`x stran // Aktual`ny`e issledovaniya. 2025. № 38 (273). Ch. I. S. 34–40.
- Savel`ev A.I. Pravovaya priroda smart-kontraktov po rossijskomu i zarubezhnomu pravu // Zakon. 2018. № 12. S. 94–108.
- Svirin Yu.A. Grazhdanskoe pravo: uchebnik. M.: Prometej, 2026. S. 400–405.
Tokenization of Investment Funds: New Trends in Legal RegulationKONAROVSKII Nikita AlexandrovichMaster’s Student of the Faculty of Law of Lomonosov Moscow State University119991, Moscow, Leninskie Gory, 1, Building 13 (4th Academic Building), Room 526A, Russian FederationAbstract: The purpose of this paper is to identify and define the new trend toward the tokenization of investment funds. The article identifies the strategic advantages and risks of fund tokenization, analyzes the experience of leading foreign countries, and proposes promising approaches to regulation within the Russian legal framework in light of Federal Law No. 282 «On Digital Currencies and Digital Rights».Keywords: tokenization, investment funds, DLT, distributed ledger technology, digital rights
References
- Analiticheskij doklad Banka Rossii «Tokenizaciya aktivov real`nogo mira: e`konomicheskaya priroda i opy`t regulirovaniya». Moskva, 2024 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cbr.ru/Content/Document/File/170116/analytical_report_22112024.pdf.
- Dy`nnik D.I. Tokenizaciya paev paevy`x investicionny`x fondov s ispol`zovaniem infrastruktury` operatorov cifrovy`x finansovy`x aktivov. Kazan`: Buk, 2026. S. 122.
- Konarovskij N.A. Tokenizaciya investicionny`x fondov: ot smeloj gipotezy` k delovoj real`nosti // Pravo i biznes. 2026. № 1. S. 45–49.
- Osnovny`e napravleniya razvitiya finansovy`x texnologij na period 2025–2027. Moskva, 2024 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://cbr.ru/Content/Document/File/166399/onfintech_2025-27.pdf.
- Pepelyaeva L.V. Tokenizaciya i token: problemny`e voprosy` terminologii // Bankovskoe pravo. 2026. № 2. S. 76–85.
- Poyasnitel`naya zapiska k proektu federal`nogo zakona «O cifrovoj valyute i cifrovy`x pravax» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://sozd.duma.gov.ru/bill/1194918-8.
- Tokenisation, a buyside practitioner’s guide. European Fund and Asset Management Association (EFAMA). June 2025. P. 36.
- UK Fund Tokenisation: a Blueprint for implementation. Interim Report from the Technology Working Group to the Asset Management Taskforce. The Investment Association. November 2023. P. 30.
- Policy Statement PS26/7. Progressing Fund Tokenisation. Financial Conduct Authority. April 2026. P. 85.
- URL: https://www.rbc.ru/quote/27/06/2026/6a3fe3239a79474bbcfcad6d. [E`lektronny`j resurs].
Admissibility of the Transaction Dispute Procedure in Respect of a Transfer of Funds to a Carrier or Agent in Payment of Carriage ChargeKAREV Maksimilian KonstantinovichPostgraduate Student of Saint-Petersburg University of Management Technologies and Economics190020, St. Petersburg, 44 Lermontovsky Prospekt, Building A, Russian FederationAbstract: The purpose of the article is to identify the grounds determining the admissibility of the transaction dispute procedure in respect of a transfer of funds to a carrier or agent in payment of carriage charge for the air carriage of a passenger. The study employed formal-legal and logical methods, as well as an analysis of judicial decisions. It is argued that the refund of funds resulting from the use of the dispute procedure is of a technical nature and does not, in itself, constitute grounds for the payer to receive them.Keywords: contract for air carriage of passenger, refund of carriage charge, transaction dispute, chargeback, dispute, payment card, payment system, Faster Payments System, acquiring, unjust enrichment
References
- Federal`ny`e aviacionny`e pravila «Obshhie pravila vozdushny`x perevozok passazhirov, bagazha, gruzov i trebovaniya k obsluzhivaniyu passazhirov, gruzootpravitelej, gruzopoluchatelej»: utv. prikazom Mintransa Rossii ot 28 iyunya 2007 g. № 82 (red. ot 15.10.2025) // Ros. gaz. 2007. № 225. 10 okt.
- Internet-stranicza «Nedolgij spor: vam vernut den`gi by`stro i bez suda» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.banki.ru/news/daytheme/?id=10640898.
- Internet-stranicza «Sistema by`stry`x platezhej – Otvety` na populyarny`e voprosy` – Chto delat`, esli pri oplate tovarov (rabot, uslug) chto-to poshlo ne tak?» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.cbr.ru/PSystem/sfp.
- Federal`ny`j zakon ot 27 iyunya 2011 g. № 161-FZ «O nacional`noj platezhnoj sisteme» (red. ot 09.04.2026) // Ros. gaz. 2011. № 139. 30 iyunya.
- Py`xtin S.V. Pravovaya priroda operacii chargeback po platezhnoj bankovskoj karte // Bankovskoe pravo. 2022. № 6. S. 41–48 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. Dostup iz sprav.-pravovoj sistemy` «Konsul`tantPlyus».
- Fioshin A.V., Belin A.V. O sudebnoj i nesudebnoj zashhite prav potrebitelej v usloviyax cifrovizacii // Vestnik Akademii Sledstvennogo komiteta Rossijskoj Federacii. 2024. № 2 (40). S. 45–51.
- Xamidullina F.I., Yusupov D.D. Vnesudebnaya zashhita prav platel`shhika e`lektronny`x platezhej, procedura chardzhbek // Sovremennaya nauka: aktual`ny`e problemy` teorii i praktiki. Seriya: E`konomika i pravo. 2023. № 4. S. 151–156.
- Xrustaleva A.V. Problemy` pravovogo regulirovaniya vozvrata platezha po spornoj operacii pri beznalichny`x raschetax v Rossijskoj Federacii // Zakon. 2016. № 12. S. 58–69 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. Dostup iz sprav.-pravovoj sistemy` «Konsul`tantPlyus».
- Internet-stranicza «Odin iz sposobov vernut` den`gi za pokupku» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://zpp.rospotrebnadzor.ru/news/regional/339112.
- Internet-stranicza «Koronavirus COVID-19: kakie prava est` u potrebitelya i kak ix zashhitit`? (otvety` na tipovy`e voprosy`)» [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://zpp.rospotrebnadzor.ru/handbook/turist/memos/207045#Razdel52.
- Vozdushny`j kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ot 19 marta 1997 g. № 60-FZ (red. ot 28.11.2025) // Ros. gaz. 1997. № 59–60. 26 marta.
- Matveeva M.A., Gocz E.V. Osobennosti pravovogo regulirovaniya vzaimootnoshenij perevozchikov i passazhirov v period pandemii koronavirusa // Agrarnoe i zemel`noe pravo. 2025. № 5. S. 99–102.
- Polozhenie Banka Rossii ot 29 iyunya 2021 g. № 762-P «O pravilax osushhestvleniya perevoda denezhny`x sredstv» (red. ot 17.06.2025) // Vestnik Banka Rossii. 2021. № 62. 8 sent.
- Grazhdanskij kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ot 26 yanv. 1996 g. № 14-FZ. Chast` vtoraya (red. ot 24.06.2025) // Sobranie zakonodatel`stva Rossijskoj Federacii. 1996. № 5. 29 yanv. St. 410.
- Opredelenie Verxovnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii ot 9 dek. 2021 g. № 305-E`S21-23036 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. Dostup iz sprav.-pravovoj sistemy` «Konsul`tantPlyus».
- Opredelenie Verxovnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii ot 7 marta 2023 g. № 305-E`S22-26428 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. Dostup iz sprav.-pravovoj sistemy` «Konsul`tantPlyus».
- Reshenie mirovogo sud`i sudebnogo uchastka № 48 Zheleznodorozhnogo sudebnogo rajona Moskovskoj oblasti ot 10 fevr. 2022 g. po delu № 2-3/2022 // 48.MO.MSUDRF.RU: oficial`ny`j sajt sudebnogo uchastka № 48 mirovogo sud`i Zheleznodorozhnogo sudebnogo rajona Moskovskoj oblasti [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://48.mo.msudrf.ru/modules.php?name=sud_delo&op=sd&number=255730243&case_number=251621392&delo_id=1540005.
- Apellyacionnoe opredelenie Zheleznodorozhnogo gorodskogo suda Moskovskoj oblasti ot 19 iyulya 2022 g. po delu № 2-3/2022 // ZHELEZNODOROJNIY.MO.SUDRF.RU: oficial`ny`j sajt Zheleznodorozhnogo gorodskogo suda Moskovskoj oblasti [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://zheleznodorojniy--mo.sudrf.ru/modules.php?name=sud_delo&srv_num=1&name_op=doc&number=446141004&delo_id=5&new=5&text_number=1.
- Opredelenie Chetvertogo kassacionnogo suda obshhej yurisdikcii ot 19 yanv. 2023 g. po delu № 2-356/2021 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. Dostup iz sprav.-pravovoj sistemy` «Konsul`tantPlyus».
Participation of the Russian Federation in Business Entities: Development Trends and ProspectsROZHKOV Nikita GennadievichApplicant of the Faculty of Law of the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics115054, Moscow, Stremyanny Lane, 36, Russian FederationAbstract: The purpose of the work is to determine the versatility and complexity of the process of state participation in business entities within the framework of corporate legal relations, taking into account the establishment of trends and development prospects. The regulatory legal framework requires improvement and addition not only for the protection of state interests, but also for the protection of the rights of minority shareholders and other subjects of corporate relations with the participation of the state. We believe that for the long-term development of these relations in Russia, first of all, it is necessary to find a balance between the interests of the state and the private sector. The success of these relationships has a great impact on the country’s economy as a whole and on long-term economic growth.Keywords: business entities, corporate governance, dualism, legal entity, corporate legal relations, corporations with state participation
References
- Korporativnoe pravo: uchebny`j kurs: v 2 t. / otv. red. I.S. Shitkina. T. 2. M.: Statut, 2018. 976 s.
- Laptev V.A. Korporativnoe upravlenie predpriyatiyami oboronno-promy`shlennogo kompleksa: smena paradigm // Aktual`ny`e problemy` rossijskogo prava. 2025. № 6. S. 75-85.
- Levushkin A.N., Morozov S.Yu. Cifrovoj torgovy`j oborot i distancionny`j sposob prodazhi tovarov v paradigme teorii i pravoprimenitel`noj praktike // Vestnik arbitrazhnoj praktiki. 2024. № 5. S. 3-10.
- Levushkin A.N., Morozov S.Yu. Proverka kontragenta pered zaklyucheniem dogovora kak nepoimenovanny`j sposob obespecheniya ispolneniya predprinimatel`skix obyazatel`stv // Yurist. 2021. № 7. S. 37-42.
- Levushkin A.N. Primenenie otdel`ny`x sposobov zashhity` korporativny`x prav // Pravo i biznes. 2025. № 3. S. 6-11.
- Rozhkov N.G. Sovremennaya koncepciya korporativnogo upravleniya v korporaciyax s gosudarstvenny`m uchastiem // Pravo i e`konomika. 2026. № 9. S. 38-45.
- Rozhkov N.G. Ponyatie i osobennosti pravovogo polozheniya korporacij s gosudarstvenny`m uchastiem v Rossijskoj Federacii // Agrarnoe i zemel`noe pravo. 2025. № 12. S. 320-324.
- Rozhkov N.G. Semejny`e kompanii s gosudarst-venny`m uchastiem: problemy` pravosub``ektnosti // Sem`ya, semejny`j biznes i nastavnichestvo kak tradicionny`e cennosti rossijskogo obshhestva: monografiya / otv. red. I.V. Ershova, A.N. Levushkin. M.: Yusticinform, 2026. S. 239-256.
- Tkachev V.N. Institut nesostoyatel`nosti (bankrotstva) kak e`lement kompleksa mer po obespecheniyu e`konomicheskoj bezopasnosti xozyajstvuyushhix sub``ektov // Grazhdanskoe pravo. 2012. № 6. S. 13-17.
- Tkachev V.N. Teoreticheskie i prakticheskie problemy` transgranichnoj nesostoyatel`nosti // Zhurnal rossijskogo prava. 2007. № 4. S. 120-129.
- Upravlenie i korporativny`j kontrol` v akcionernom obshhestve: Prakticheskoe posobie / Pod red. E.P. Gubina. M.: Yurist``, 1999. 247 s.
- Sinicyn S.A. Korporativnoe pravo: opy`t, sostoyanie, perspektivy`: monografiya. M.: Infotropik Media, 2023 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://base.garant.ru/481247957/.
- Sny`tnikova N.V. Dobrosovestnost` i zloupotreblenie pravom v korporativny`x pravootnosheniyax: dis. … kand. yurid. nauk. M., 2025 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.ranepa.ru/upload/iblock/cbd/b3is6tj5k85k15hubm2ftouyixdg9exm.pdf.
- Narajkin O.V. Chastnopravovoj institut sdelok, v sovershenii kotory`x imeetsya zainteresovannost`: dis. … kand. yurid. nauk. M., 2025 [E`lektronny`j resurs]. URL: https://www.rudn.ru/storage/media/science_dissertation/a26d8e30-38e0-4fd0-bf24-33411b3b4b7a/DeucEQu9MEQP2ljeJQjTNpn6IMaAuuYW3aazdL2M.pdf.
Information for authors
Urgent Information
Index
